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ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES, 

RESPECTING! 

THE RED MAN OE AMERICA. 


0 ) 













HISTORY. CONDITION 


PROSPECTS 


© if a in m 


3KBSAM T1I1KS of Ac TOITE© STATES: 


/W//rr/ed ir/id /i/r/ui/rd under t/ie- 
direction of the BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS per act of Congress 

of March Sf'fMZ 

!Y !H1 E K 1 Y B8.8©M<0><0>IL<DroAIFTr LLI. 


Illustrated by 

S. EASTMAN, CAPT. H. S. AMT, 



Published by authority of Congress. 

Pari 1. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

L1PP1NCOTT, CRAMBO k CO. 








































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HISTORICAL 


AND 

STATISTICAL INFORMATION, 

RESPECTING THE 

HISTORY, CONDITION AND PROSPECTS 

OF THE 

INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES: 

COLLECTED AND PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION 

OF THE 

BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, 

PER ACT OF CONGRESS OF MARCH 3d, 1847, 

BY HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, LL. D. 

ILLUSTRATED BY S. EASTMAN, CAPT. U. S. A. 

|fablt 0 [rt& btj Infjmitt] nt Cflugrm, 

A- ... 

PART I. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & COMPANY, 

(SUCCESSORS TO GRIGG, ELLIOT & CO.) 

1851 . 



By trauatitt 
St J«I907 



MESSAGE 


OF THE 


PBESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 


To the Senate of the United States : 

I transmit herewith a communication from the Department of the Interior, and the 
papers which accompanied it; being the first part of the results of investigations by Henry R. 
Schoolcraft, Esq., under the provisions of an Act of Congress, approved March 3d, 1847, requiring 
the Secretary of War “to collect and digest such statistics and materials as may illustrate the 
history, the present condition, and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States.” 

MILLARD FILLMORE. 

Washington, 10 th August, 1850. 


• Department of the Interior, 

Washington, August 9, 1850. 

Sir : 

I have the honor to transmit herewith, with the view of their being laid before the 
Senate, a communication from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and the papers which accom¬ 
pany it: viz., a letter from Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq., together with the manuscripts and 
drawings; being the first part of results of investigations under the provisions of an Act of 
Congress, approved March 3d, 1847, requiring the Secretary of War to collect and digest such 
statistics and materials as may illustrate the history, present condition, and future prospects of 
the Indian tribes of the United States. 

Very Respectfully, 

Your Obedient Servant, 

D. C. GODDARD, 

Secretary ad interim. 

To the President of the United States. 


(id) 


IV 


INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENTS. 


Sir: 


Department of the Interior, 

Office Indian Affairs, 

August 7th, 1850. 


Under the Act of Congress approved March 3d, 1847, Henry R. Schoolcraft was 
appointed “ to collect and digest such statistics and materials as may illustrate the history, present 
condition and future prospects of the Indian tribes of the United States.” 

I have the honor to submit for transmission to Congress, the manuscripts and drawings here¬ 
with,— being the first part of the results of Mr. Schoolcraft’s investigations,—also a letter from 
him, explanatory of the nature and extent of his labors, and suggesting the proper course to be 
pursued in relation to the publication of the work. He naturally feels solicitous as to the correct¬ 
ness and style of the mechanical execution; and in view of the labor, learning, and ability he 
has devoted to the work, and its nationality of character, I trust his wishes in that respect may 
be regarded. 

Very Respectfully, 

Your Obedient Servant, 

L. LEA, 

Commissioner, 


D. C. Goddard, Esq., 

Secretary of the Interior, ad interim. 


L. Lea, Esq., 

Commissioner of Indian Affairs. 

Sir : 


Washington, July 22 d, 1850. 


In conformity with authority confided to me under the provisions of an Act of Congress, 
approved March 3d, 1847, requiring the Secretary of War “to collect and digest such statistics 
and materials as may illustrate the history, the present condition, and future prospects of the 
Indian tribes of the United States,” I have the honor to submit to you the first part of the 
results of my investigations. 

Time was required in order to place an inquiry so comprehensive in its character on a proper 
basis. Misapprehensions on the part of the Indians, with respect to the object of the collection 
of their statistics, were to be met. The additional duties required of the agents of Indian affairs 
presupposed so intimate an acquaintance with the history and languages of the tribes and the 
distinguishing traits of races, that few of this class of officers were prepared to undertake them. 
The investigation in these particulars was therefore extended to embrace gentlemen of experience, 
observation, and learning, in various parts of the Union; including numerous teachers and mis¬ 
sionaries employed in moral and intellectual labors among them. Facts were, indeed, solicited 
from all who had facts to communicate. 1 


A copy of the Historical Inquiries, drawn up for this purpose, is inserted as an Appendix to this volume. 




INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENTS. 


V 


Valuable memoirs and communications have been received as the result of these joint mea- 
sui es, official and unofficial, and a mass of information collected which may serve, it is believed, 
to rescue the topic, in some measure, from a class of hasty and imaginative tourists and 
writers, whose ill-digested theories often lack the basis of correct observation and sound 
deduction. 

American and European writers have been, to no small extent, misled by these suppositi¬ 
tious views, not only respecting the real character of the tribes, but the policy of the govern¬ 
ment itself in relation to them, has been extensively prejudged and misapprehended. Some of 
the most able and profound writers, at home and abroad, whose works will, in their main parts, 
be long cherished, have taken the mere synonyms of tribes, as distinct and separate tribes, playing 
different parts in history. 

The languages which have so many features to be admired in common with the Shemitic plan 
of thought, to which they must be referred, have been pronounced, on very slender materials, 
to contain high refinements in forms of expression; an opinion which there is reason to believe 
requires great modifications, however terse and beautiful the languages are, in their power of 
combination. 

The aboriginal archaeology has fallen under a somewhat similar spirit of misapprehension and 
predisposition to exaggeration. The antiquities of the United States are the antiquities of bar- 
barism, and not of ancient civilization. Mere age they undoubtedly have; but when we look about 
our magnificent forests and fertile valleys for ancient relics of the traces of the plough, the compass, 
the pen, and the chisel, it must require a heated imagination to perceive much, if anything at 
all, beyond the hunter state of arts, as it existed at the respective eras of the Scandinavian and 
Columbian discoveries. 

It has been the practice of some writers, astonished at the isolated monuments of labor and skill, 
which are manifestly intrusive, to speak of the antiquities of the Mississippi Valley as denoting 
a high state of ancient civilization in the aboriginal race. But when these vestiges of human 
labor are attentively studied on a broad scale, in connection with all the attending phenomena, 
they do not appear to sanction the belief of any high and general state of advance in the race 
before the arrival of Europeans. This may be emphatically said of the tribes within the territory 
of the United States, whatever judgment may be formed respecting the ruins of Palenque, Cuzco, 
Yucatan, and the Valley of Mexico. 

A predisposition to admire and wonder in. viewing objects of archaeological discovery, is not 
peculiar to this continent, but has stood in the way of sober deduction, founded on an impartial 
basis of migratory action and reaction in all ages of the world’s history. 

However these subjects may, in our own land, puzzle and distract inquirers, lying, in some minds, 
as so many stumbling-blocks in the way of historical truth, it was due to the character of the 
government, and to a peculiar variety of the race of man, — for such we must regard the Indian 
tribes,— to place the record from which both their and its actions are to be judged, on grounds 
of authentic information while the tribes are yet on the stage of action. 

It could not have been anticipated in the beginning of the 16th century, that erratic and 
predatory hordes of hunters, without agriculture, arts, or letters, and with absolutely nothing in 
their civil polity that merits the name of government, should have been able to sustain themselves; 
far less, to cope with the European stocks who landed here with the highest type of industrial 
civilization. 


\ 


VI 


INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENTS. 


But justice to every period of our history, colonial and sovereign, requires it to be shown 
that the great duties of humanity have not been constantly performed towards them; that their 
possessory right to the soil has not been at all times fully acknowledged, and that their capacities 
for improvement and knowledge have not been attempted to he elicited in every way, and unceas¬ 
ingly cultivated and appealed to. 

A continent has been appropriated, in the occupancy of which this race preceded us. For 
their actual character in peace and war, and capacities for the duties of life; for their history 
and idiosyncracies; for their arts and habits; their modes of subsistence, and inter-tribal inter¬ 
course ; for their languages and mental traits and peculiarities, as developed by curious oral recitals 
and mythologic dogmas and opinions, which carry the mind back to early oriental epochs ; for their 
system of mnemonic symbols, and, in fine, for the general facts that go to establish their nation¬ 
ality and character, posterity will look to the present age for its record, whatever may betide 
the history of the tribes, or the efforts of humanity in their behalf. 

In providing for their enumeration and statistics, Congress has regarded these as indispensable 
points in the illustration of the main design. How far the inquiries are accomplished in the 
investigations made, there will he better means of judging when the results shall have been fully 
presented. The present materials are submitted as a part of the information collected, and will 
be followed by others as early as the returns and papers can be fully examined and digested. 

It will occur to you, sir, that this inquiry is of a national character, and that, in bringing 
the matter forward, there will be a propriety in permitting the same hand that prepared it to 
supervise the publication. Many of the papers abound in aboriginal expressions to which no 
one unacquainted with the languages could do justice. The system of pictography, which is 
for the first time exhibited, imposes a degree of critical care in the typography which is not 
ordinarily expected. I have the honor, therefore, to suggest that Congress, to whom I request 
you will refer this communication, he solicited to order that the present manuscripts and the 
succeeding parts of them, together with the illustrations and engravings, be printed under the 
special charge of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, acting for the Library Committee. 

Very Respectfully, 

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, 

Agent on Census, &c. 

Act of 3 d March , 1847. 


P E E F A C E. 


While these papers are believed to exhibit, in a new light, the history, condition, 
and prospects of the Indian Race, an effort is made to base the subject on the broad 
grounds of their continental relations, as one of the primary varieties of the human 
family. Names, geographical positions, events, languages, antique monuments of 
art—whatever serves, in fact, to define or illustrate the varying phases of their history 
and character, is found to assume increased importance from this consideration. 
Tribes, families, and groups are thus invested with a new power of generalization. 

In carrying out these relations, through the intricacies of physical and intellectual 
development, the chief reliance is placed on the general deductions of history and 
ethnology, as these data have been applied in the consideration of the affinities of the 
races of men. Stress has also been laid on that peculiar feature of the human mind 
by which nations form their ideas of a Deity,— a trait which is deemed fundamental 
in the mental type. 

The subject of Indian History is locally approached, through aboriginal traditions, 
tribal and general, and the topics of American antiquities and American languages. 
The latter is, however, considered as the true key of their affinities. It is unde¬ 
niable, that whatever light may be obtained from other sources, it is upon comparative 
views of the principles of their languages, and*of the actual state of their lexicography, 
that we must chiefly rely for anything aspiring to antiquarian value. 

The author conceives that he has had unusual opportunities of becoming acquainted 
with the principles of these apparently ancient mediums of human thought. He has 
given to these studies his days and nights, when, without this motive to exertion, 
they would have passed as a blank in the remotest forests. The theme has 
been pursued with all the ardor and hopefulness of youth, and the perseverance 
1 (▼“) 


PREFACE. 


viii 

of maturer years, passed in the vicissitudes of a frontier life. If, to many, the 
wilderness is a place of wearisome solitude, to him it assumed, under these influ¬ 
ences, far more the semblance of the choicest recesses of an academic study. This 
study has only been intruded upon by the cares of business, and the higher duties 
of office; but it has ever been crowned, in his mind, with the ineffable delights 
that attend the hope of knowledge, and the triumph of research. Thirty years 
thus spent on the frontiers, and in the forests, where the Red Race still dwells, 
have exhibited them to his observation in almost every possible development. He 
has been placed in a variety of situations to observe the structure and capacities of 
the Indian mind, in its minutest idiosyncracies; to glean his notions of life, death, 
and immortality; his conceptions of the character and being of a God, who is uni¬ 
versally acknowledged as the Creator; and to detect the secret springs of his acts, 
living and dying. The peculiarly intimate relations the author has held to them 
(having married a highly educated lady, whose grandfather was a distinguished 
aboriginal chief-regnant, or king,) has had the effect of breaking down towards 
himself, individually, the eternal distrust and suspicion of the Indian mind, and to 
open the most secret arcana of his hopes and fears, as imposed by his religious 
dogmas, and as revealed by the deeply-hidden causes of his extraordinary acts and 
wonderful character. 

The mental type of the aborigines, which has been systematically pursued through 
the recondite relations of their mythology and religion; their notions of the duality 
of the soul; their conceptions of a complex spiritual agency affecting man and 
beast; their mysterious trust in a system of pictographic symbols, believed to have 
a reflex power of personal influence; and their indomitable fixity in these pecu¬ 
liarities, reveal the true causes, he apprehends, why the race has so long and so 
pertinaciously resisted, as with iron resistance, all the lights and influences which 
Europe and America united have poured upon their mind, through letters, arts, 
knowledge, and Christianity. 

The United States has maintained relations with some seventy tribes who occupy 
the continental area east of the Rocky Mountains. The great practical object, 
which has at all periods pressed upon the Government, has been the preservation 
of peace, on the constantly enlarging circle of the frontiers. This effort, basing 
itself on one of the earliest acts of Washington, has been unintermitted. Occupying 
the peculiar relation of a mixed foreign and domestic character, the intercourse 
has called for the exercise of a paternal as well as an official policy. No people 
has ever evinced such a non-appreciating sense of the lessons of experience, in the 
career of their history and destiny; and the problem of their management has still 
returned to us, to be repeated again—What line of policy is best suited to advance 


PREFACE. 


IX 


their prosperity? The present plan of collecting information respecting their actual 
condition, character, and prospects, is based on an appeal to the entire official organi¬ 
zation of the Department on the frontiers; and is believed to be the most efficient 
one that can be pursued to collect a body of authentic information, which may 
serve as the record from which the tribes are to be judged. Its results will be 
communicated as the materials accumulate. 

In the consideration of the policy to be adopted with respect to the wild prairie 
and transmontane tribes, who rove over immense tracts with no sense of dependence 
or responsibility but that which they daily acknowledge to the bow and arrow, the 
gun and club, — in the use of which they have acquired great dexterity — and new 
power by the introduction of the horse; we commend to notice the remarks of Mr. 
Wyeth, formerly of Oregon, on the best mode to be adopted respecting the shifting 
and feeble tribes of those latitudes. The faithless and robber-like character of the 
prairie hordes east of the mountains, is graphically depicted by Mr. Burnet, in his 
memoir on the Comanches, and by Mr. Fitzpatrick, respecting the Arapahoes and 
other predatory tribes on the higher Arkansas and Nebraska. Although this cha¬ 
racter is inapplicable to the more easterly tribes, many of whom are advanced in 
arts and knowledge, it is yet important to keep it in view in adjusting our policy 
respecting those remote and lawless tribes. 

The experience of two hundred years, with the entire race, demonstrates the 
delusion of a prosperous Indian nationality, as based on any other system but that 
of agriculture and the arts. And, it is believed, the sooner the several tribes cease 
to regard themselves politically as containing the elements of a foreign population, 
the sooner will the best hopes of their permanent prosperity and civilization be 
realized. Meantime, while they preserve a pseudo-nationality, it may be affirmed 
as one of the clearest deductions of statistical and practical investigations into the 
operation of our laws, and the general principles of population, that nothing beyond 
the interest of the funds due to the tribes, for lands purchased from them, should 
continue to be paid as annuities, — while policy requires, that the principal should be 
devoted, with their consent, wholly to purposes of civil polity, education, and the 
arts. 


With all their defects of character, the Indian tribes are entitled to the peculiar 
notice of a people who have succeeded to the occupancy of territories which once 
belonged to them. They constitute a branch of the human race whose history is lost 
in the early and wild mutations of men. We perceive in them many noble and 
disinterested traits. The simplicity of their eloquence has challenged admiration. 
Higher principles of devotion to what they believe to be cardinal virtues no people 


X 


PREFACE. 


ever evinced. Faith has furnished the Christian martyr with motives to sustain him 
at the stake: but the North American Indian has endured the keenest torments of 
fire without the consolations of the Gospel. Civilized nations are cheered on their 
way to face the cannon’s mouth by inspiring music; but the warrior of the forest 
requires no roll of the drum to animate his steps. 

Mistaken in his belief in a system of gods of the elements — misconceiving the 
whole plan of industrial prosperity and happiness — wrong in his conceptions of the 
social duties of life, and doubly wrong in his notions of death and eternity, he yet 
approves himself to the best sensibilities of the human heart, by the strong exhibition 
of those ties which bind a father to his children, and link whole forest communities 
in the indissoluble bonds of brotherhood. He lingers with affection, but with helpless 
ignorance, around the dying couch of his relatives; and his long memory of the dead 
ceases but with life itself. No costly tomb or cenotaph marks his place of burial; 
but he visits that spot with the silent majesty of grief. God has planted in his heart 
affections and feelings which only require to be moulded, and directed to noble aims. 
That impress seals him as a brother, erring, indeed, and benighted in his ways, but 
still a brother. 

To reclaim such a race to the paths of virtue and truth; to enlighten the mind 
which has been so long in darkness ; and to give it new and solid foundations for its 
hopes, is a duty alike of high civilization and warm benevolence. 


Philadelphia, December 3, 1850. 


LIST OF PLATES. 


Title-Page.Page 1 

1 and 2. Ideographic Map of Botturini. 20 

3. Indian offering Food to the Dead. 39 

4. Entrances or Gateways to different Mounds. 48 

5. Comparative Size of Mounds. 52 

6. Garden-Beds in Grand River Valley, Michigan. 55 

7. Garden-Beds in the Valley of St. Joseph’s River, Michigan. 55 

8. Antique Pipes from Thunder Bay, &c., Michigan. 74 

9. Antique Pipes. 75 

10. Antique Pipes. 76 

11. Mace or War-Clubs, Fleshing Instrument, Antique Pipe, and Coal-Chisel . 77 

12. Section of Grave Creek Mound. Antique Pipes and Idols. 120 

13. Antique Pipe found in Western Virginia. 78 

14. Indian Axe, Stone Tomahawk, and Stone Chisel. 79 

15. Indian Axe and Balista. 285 

16. Stone Axes. 80 

17. Arrow-Heads. 81 

18. Arrow-Heads. 82 

19. Gorget and Mineralized Spoon. 103 

20. Medals and Gorget. 83 

21. Stone Pestle and Copper Chisel. 84 

22. Cooking-Pot and Vase . 85 

23. Discoidal Stones and Block-Print. 86 

24. Coin Enamel Beads. 104 

25. Amulets and Beads. 105 

26. Spear-Heads. 87 

27. Awls, Antique Mortar and Corn-Cracker . 88 

28. Bone Shuttle and Implements for Twine-making. 89 

29. Block-Prints and Fleshing Instruments. 90 

30. Specimens of Cloth from the Sandwich Islands. 91 

31. Copper Wrist-Bands . 92 

32. Brass Rings and Stone Tubes.93 

38. Baldrics of Bone and Antique Pottery...... 94 

34. Fragments of Pottery...... 94 

(xi) 




































XU 


LIST OF PLATES. 


85. Shells. 94 

36. Dighton Rock Inscription. 114 

37. Synopsis of Dighton Rock Inscription. 119 

38. Stones with Inscriptions, and Skull from Grave Creek Mound. 122 

39. Map of Grave Creek Flats, Virginia... 123 

40. View of the Ohio from an Antique Lookout or Watch-Tower in the vicinity of Grave 

Creek. 124 

41. Map of the Source of the Mississippi River. 148 

42. View of Itasca Lake, Source of the Mississippi River.. 147 

43. Map of Kansas River. 159 

44. Cavern in the Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior. 170 

45. Oneida Stone. 177 

46. Indian Doctor Curing a Sick Man. 250 

47. Pictographic Writing—Hieroglyphic Interpretation of Proverbs, Chap. xxx. Indian 

Inscriptions on Bark. 336 

48. Dacota Mission of Peace, and warning against Trespass. 338 

49. Pictographs on a Tree from Upper Mississippi. Tutelar Spirits of Chusco. 352 

50. Grave-Posts. 356 

51. Meda Songs. 361 

52. Wabeno Songs. 373 

53. Pictographic Inscriptions used in Hunting. 383 

54. Pictorial Records of a Chief’s Success in Hunting. 387 

55. Vision of Catherine Wabose. 390 

56. War and Love Songs. 401 

57. Pictographs on Lake Superior, Michigan. 406 

58. Synopsis of Indian Hieroglyphics. 408 

59. Synopsis of Indian Hieroglyphics. 409 

60. Pictograph A, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States. 416 

61. Pictograph B, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States. 417 

62. Pictograph C and D, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States. 419 

63. Pictograph E, Chippewa Petition to the President of the United States. 420 

64. Siberian Inscription relating to the Chase. 424 

65. Transcript from the River Irtish, Tartary. 425 

66. Egyptian Fly God, Baal, and Rock Inscriptions of the Mongolic and Tartar Races 342 

67. Inscriptions from the Mongolian and Tartar Races. 343 

68. Inscription on a Laplander’s Drum-Head. 427 

69. Triumphal Tablet of Belistun, Persia. 423 

70. Atotarho, the first Iroquois Ruler... 421 

71. Iroquois Picture-Writing. 429 

72. Iroquois Picture-Writing. 430 

73. Iroquois Picture-Writing. 431 

74. Local Manito. 129 

75. Ohio River, from the Summit of Grave Creek Mound. 125 

76. Shoshonee Implements....... 211 











































CONTENTS. 


1. GENERAL HISTORY. 


SYNOPSIS. 

A. History, National and- Tribal . Page 13 

1. Its Fabulous Character . 13 

2. Summary of the Indian Cosmogonists. 14 

3. Antiquity of their Origin . 14 

4. Permanency of the Physical Traits. 15 

5. General Unity of Race and Language. 15 

6. Utter Impracticability of the Indian Mind and fixity of the tribal Tie. 15 

7. Indian Mythology. 16 

8. The Great Spirit Dualistic. Polytheism of the Indian Mind. 16 

9. A Worshipper of the Elements... 16 

B. Origin . 16 

1. Ancient Historians and the Persic and Nilotic Inscriptions are silent respecting 

them. 16 

2. A very old Race of Men — too old for any records but the divine oracles — probably 

Almogic. 17 

3. Summary of Belief. 17 

4. Belief of a Deluge . 17 

5. Belief in a Subterranean Origin. 17 

6. Traditions of the monster Era. Algonquins assert it to have preceded the creation 

of Man. 18 

7. Tradition of public Benefactors. 18 

8. Tradition of the Arrival of Europeans. 18 

C. Traditions of the Ante-Columbian Epoch . 19 

1. Tradition of the Athapascas. 19 

2. Tradition of the Shawnees. 19 

3. Tradition of the Aztecs and Toltecs . 19 

4. Ideographic Map of Botturini; explained, Plates 1 and 2. 20 

5 The Aztecs not Aborigines . 21 

6. Toltec and Aztec Tradition of their History. 21 


(13) 




























XIV 


CONTENTS. 


7. Nationality of Quetzalcoatl. 21 

8 . Examination of this Question by the lights of Modern Observation in Geography. 22 

9. Theory of Winds, Currents, and Temperature, in the Latitudes applied to the early 

Migration to America. 22 

10. Observations at the National Observatory. Lieutenant Maury . 23 

11. Historical Deductions. 26 

2. THE MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

A. Generic Views. 29 

1. Has the Race claims to a Peculiarity of Type ?. 30 

2. Sun Worship . 30 

3. Sacred Fire... 31 

4. Oriental Doctrine of Good and Evil. 31 

5. Idea of the Germ of Creation under the Symbol of an Egg . 32 

6 . Doctrines of the Magi. 32 

7. Duality of the Soul. 33 

8 . Metempsychosis . 33 

9. Omens from the Flight of Birds. 33 

10. Images and Omens drawn from the Sky. 34 

11. Indian Philosophy of Good and Evil.;. 34 

12. Theology of the Indian Jugglers and Hunter-Priests. 35 

13. Great Antiquity of Oriental Knowledge :. 35 

14. Nature and objects of Brahminical Worship. 36 

15. Antiquities of America. 36 

16. Antiquities of the United States. 36 i 

17. Antiquity of Philological Proof. 37 

18. Hindoo Theology. 37 

19. Eternity of Life the boon of Hindoo Deliverance. 37 

20. Difficulty of comparing Savage and Civilized Nations. 37 

21. A Dualistic Deity. 38 

22. Worship of the Elements. Transmigration../. 38 

23. What Stock of Nations. 38 

24. Cast. Incineration of the Body. 38 

25. Offerings to Ancestors. 38 

26. Offerings at Meals, or on Journeys . 39 

27. Parallelism of Idolatrous Customs among the Jews. 39 

28. Extreme Antiquity of Hindoo Rites. 39 

29. Indian Languages. Shemitic. 49 

30. Manners and Customs Mongolic. 40 

31. Conclusions of the early Anglo-Saxons. 49 

32. Permanency of the Physiological Type. 44 

33. Mental Type Non-Progressive. 44 

34. Proof of Orientalism from Astronomy. 44 

35. Proof from Aztec Astronomy. 42 











































CONTENTS. 


xv 


3. ANTIQUITIES. 

A. General Archeology. 44 

B. Antique Skill in Fortification. 47 

C. Erection of Tumuli, or Altars of Sacrifice. 49 

1. Tumuli proper . 49 

2. Redoubt Mounds . 51 

3. Barrows. 51 

4. Minor Altars of Sacrifice. 51 

5. Totemic Mounds. 52 

I 

D. Evidences of a Fixed Cultivation at an Antique Period. 54 

I. Prairie Fields. 54 

2.. Remains of antique Garden Beds and extensive Fields of Horticultural Labor in the 

primitive Prairies of the West. 54 

3. Influence of the Cultivation of the Zea Maize on the Condition, History, and Migra¬ 

tions of the Indian Race. 60 

4. Antiquities of the higher Northern Latitudes of the United States. 65 

E. The State of Arts and Miscellaneous Fabrics. 70 

1. General Views. 70 

2. Antique Pipe of the period of the Landing. 72 

3. Stemless Pipe of Thunder Bay. 74 

4. Indian Axe . 75 

5. Arrow-Head. 77 

6. Mace, or War-Club. 78 

7. Antique Gorget, or Medal. 78 

8. Corn Pestle, or Hand Bray-Stone. 80 

9. Akeek, or Indian Cooking-Pot . 81 

10. Discoidal Stones . 82 

II. Funereal Food-Vase. 83 

12. Coin, or its Equivalent. 84 

13. Balista, or Demon’s Head. 85 

14. Medaeka, or Amulets . 85 

15. Antique Javelin, or Indian Shemagon or Spear. 87 

16. Aishkun, or Bone Awl. 87 

17. Bone Shuttle. 88 

18. Ice-Cutter. 88 

19. Reed, for Rope or Twine Making. 89 

20. Antique Mortar. 90 

21. Stone Block-Prints . 90 

22. Fleshing Instrument, or Stone Chisel. 91 

23. Antique Indian Knife. 92 

24. Ancient Stone Bill, Pointed Mace, or Tomahawk. 92 

2 








































ri CONTENTS. 

25. Copper Arm and Wrist-Bands. 93 

26. Anomalous Objects of Art and Custom. 93 

F. Attempts in Mining and Metallurgy . 95 

1. General Remarks. 95 

2. Ancient Copper-Mining in the Basin of Lake Superior. 95 

3. Vestiges of Ancient Mining in Indiana and Illinois. 100 

4. Vestiges of Ancient Mining Operations in Arkansas and Missouri. 100 v 

5. Evidence of Ancient Mining Operations in California. 101 

G. Ossuaries . 102 

H. Archeological Evidences of the Continent having been visited by a People 

having Letters, prior to the Era of Columbus . 106 

1. Ancient Inscription on the Assonet or Dighton Rock. 108 

2. Notice of an Inscription in Antique Characters found on a Tabular Stone or Amulet 

in one of the Western Tumuli, of probably the beginning of the Sixteenth Century. 120 

3. Devices on a Globular Stone of the Mound Period, found in the Ohio Valley. 124 

4. Ancient Shipwreck on the American Coasts. 125 

5. Skeleton in Armor. 127 

5. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

A. Geographical Memoranda respecting the Discovery of the Mississippi River, 

with a Map of its Source . 133 

B. Gold Deposits of California . 149 

C. Mineralogical and Geographical Notices, denoting the Value of Aboriginal 

Territory. 157 

1. Tin on the Kansas River, with a Map. 157 

2. Wisconsin and Iowa Lead Ore. 160 

3. Black Oxyde of Copper of Lake Superior. 160 

4. Native Silver in the Drift Stratum of Michigan. 161 

5. Petroleum of the Chickasaw Lands. 161 

6. Artesian Borings for Salt in the Onondaga Summit. 162 

7. Geography of the Genesee Country of Western New York. 163 

D. Existing Geological Action of the American Lakes . 166 

E. Antique Osteology of the Monster Period . 173 

F. An Aboriginal Palladium, with a Plate. 176 

G. Minnesota. 181 

6. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 

1. Preliminary Remarks. 193 

2. Shoshonee, or Snake Nation . 198 
































CONTENTS. xvii 

3. Indian Tribes of Oregon, &c.; by N. J. Wyeth, Esq. 204 

4. Comanches and other Tribes of Texas, and the Policy to be pursued respecting them; 

by D. G. Burnet, Esq. 229 

5. Indian Tribes of New Mexico; by Governor Charles Bent . 242 

6. Dacotas of the Mississippi; by Thomas S. Williamson, M. D. 247 

7. The Small-Pox a Scourge to the Aborigines. 257 

8. Tribes on the Santa F 6 Trail and at the Foot of the Rocky Mountains. 259 

9. History of the Creeks or Muskogees. 265 

10. Massachusetts Indians. 284 

11. Former Indian Population of Kentucky. 300 

12. History of the Menomonies and Chippewas. 302 

13. Miscotins and Assigunaigs. 305 

14. Origin and History of the Chickasaws. 309 

VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND CHARACTER OF THE 

INDIAN RACE. 

A. Mythology and Oral Traditions . 316 

1. Iroquois Cosmogony. 316 

2. Allegorical Traditions of the Origin of Men, of Manabozho, and of the Introduction 

of Medical Magic. 317 

3. Allegory of the Origin and History of the Osages . 319 

4. Pottowattomie Theology . 320 

5. The Island of the Blessed, or the Hunter’s Dream. 321 

6. The Fate of the Red-Headed Magician. 323 

7. The Magic Ring in the Prairies. 327 

8. The History of the Little Orphan who carries the White Feather. 329 

B. Indian Pictography. 333 

1. Preliminary Considerations. 333 

2. Extreme Antiquity of the Art of Pictorial Writing; its General Use amongst the 

Oriental Nations, &c. 341 

3. Elements of the Pictorial System. Common Figurative Signs, designed to convey 

General Information among the Tribes, &c. 350 

4. Kekeewin, or Hieratic Signs of the Medawin and Jeesukawin. Definition of the Terms 

and Principles of the Scrolls. 358 

5. Rites and Symbolic Notation of the Songs of the Wabeno. Pictorial Signs used 

in this Society. A Description of the Songs and Dances. 366 

6. Symbols of the Art of Hunting and the Incidents of the Chase. 383 

7. The Higher Jeesukawin, or Prophecy. 388 

8. Symbols of War, Love, and History. Translation of War-Songs, &c. 401 

9. Universality and Antiquity of the Pictographic Method. Geographical Area Covered 

by Migrations of the Algonquin Tribes. The great Fixity of Mental and Physical 
Character. 

































xvm 


CONTENTS. 


10. Comparative View of the Pictography of Barbarous Nations. Foreign Pictographic 
Signs. The Chinese Characters founded on the Picture-Writing Devices of the 
Samoides, Siberians, Tartars, &c. 421 

VII. POPULATION AND STATISTICS. 

A. General Remarks on the Indian Population op the Union. 433 

B. Census Returns op the Indian Tribes of the United States, with their Vital 

and Industrial Statistics. 439 

1. Iroquois Group. 441 

2. Algonquin Group. 458 

3. Dacota Group. 498 

4. Appalachian Group. 508 

C. Tables op the Tribes within the newly acquired States and Territories... 518 

1. Texas. 518 

2. New Mexico. 519 

3. California. 520 

4. Oregon. 521 

5. Florida. 522 

6. Utah. 522 

7. Ultimate Consolidated Tables of the Indian Population of the United States. 523 

APPENDIX. 

Inquiries, respecting the History, Present Condition, and Future Prospects op 
the Indian Tribes op the United States. 525 

















1. GENERAL HISTORY. 


And these are ancient things. 

I. Chron. iv. 22. 


A. HISTORY; NATIONAL AND TRIBAL. 

1. Aboriginal history, on this continent, is more celebrated for preserving its fables 
than its facts. This is emphatically true respecting the hunter and non-industrial tribes 
of the present area of the United States, who have left but little that is entitled to 
historical respect. Nations creeping out of the ground — a world growing out of a 
tortoise’s back—the globe re-constructed from the earth clutched in a muskrat’s paw, 
after a deluge, — such are the fables, or allegories, from which we are to frame their 
ancient history. Without any mode of denoting their chronology, without letters, 
without any arts depending upon the use of iron tools, without, in truth, any power 
of mind or hand, to denote their early wars and dynasties, except what may be inferred 
from their monumental remains, there is nothing, in their oral narrations of ancient 
epochs, to bind together or give consistency to even this incongruous mass of wild 
hyperboles and crudities. 

Whenever it is attempted, by the slender thread of their oral traditions, to pick 
up and re-unite the broken chain of history, by which they were anciently connected 
with the old world, their sachems endeavor to fix attention by some striking allegory 
or incongruous fiction; which sounds, to ears of sober truth, like attempts at weaving 
a rope of sand. To impress the mind by extraordinary simplicity, or to surprise it, 
with a single graphic idea, is quite characteristic of Indian eloquence — whatever be 
the theme. 

Manco Capac, deriving his pedigree from the sun, or Tarenyawagon, receiving his 
apotheosis from the White Bird of Heaven; Qu^tzalcoatl, founding the Toltec empire 
with a few wanderers from the Seven Caves; or Atatarho, veiling his god-like powers 
of terror with hissing rattle-snakes, fearful only to others; such are the proofs 

(13) 




14 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


by which they aim to stay the ill-proportioned fabric of their history, antiquities, and 
mythology. 

2. The native cosmogonists, when they are recalled from building these castles in the 
air, and asked the meaning of a tumulus, or the age of some gigantic tooth or bone, 
which remains to attest geological changes in the surface of the continent, answer with 
a stare ! and if they speak at all, they make such heavy drafts upon the imagination, 
that history never knows when she has made allowances enough on this head. 

A mammoth bull, jumping over the great lakes; 1 a grape-vine carrying a whole 
tribe across the Mississippi; 2 an eagle’s wings producing the phenomenon of thunder, 
or its flashing eyes that of lightning; men stepping in viewless tracks up the blue arch 
of heaven; the rainbow made a baldric; a little boy catching the sun’s beams in a 
snare; 3 hawks, rescuing shipwrecked mariners from an angry ocean, and carrying 
them up a steep ascent, in leathern bags. 4 These, or a plain event of last year’s 
occurrence, are related by the chiefs with equal gravity, and expected to claim an 
equal share of belief and historic attention. Where so much is pure mythologic 
dross, or requires to be put in the crucible of allegory, there appears to be little room 
for any fact. Yet there are some facts, against which we cannot shut our eyes. 

3. We perceive, in them, if examined by the light of truth, as revealed alike by 
divine and profane records, a marked variety of the human race, possessing traits of a 
decidedly oriental character, who have been lost to all history, ancient and modern. 
Of their precise origin, and the era and manner of their migration to this continent, 
we know nothing with certainty, which is not inferential. Philosophical inquiry is our 
only guide. This is still the judgment of the best inquirers, who have investigated 
the subject through the medium of physiology, languages, antiquities, arts, traditions, 
or whatever other means may have been employed to solve the question. They are, 
evidently, ancient in their occupancy of the continent. There are, probably, ruins 
here, which date within five hundred years of the foundation of Babylon. All history 
demonstrates, that from that central focus of nationality, nations were propelled over 
the globe with an extraordinary degree of energy and geographical enterprise. It is 
well said by a recent and eminent writer, that the foot of man has pressed many a soil, 
which late travellers assume was never trodden before. 5 We have known this con¬ 
tinent but three centuries and a half, dating from 1492. That discovery fell like a 
thunder-clap. But it is now known that the Scandinavians had set foot upon it, at 
a long prior date, and had visited the northern part of it, from Greenland, as 
early as the beginning of the 10th century. 6 Even in the 9th century, we are 


1 Jefferson’s Notes. 2 Heckewelder’s History of the Indians. 

3 Oneota. 4 Cusic’s Ancient History of the Iroquois. 

5 Charles Hamilton Smith’s History of the Human Species. 

6 Antiquitates Americana. Copenhagen. 



NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


15 


informed, Othere proceeded on a voyage to the North Pole. The brothers Zeni had 
made important prior discoveries, in the western and northern oceans. Biscayan fish¬ 
ermen were driven off the Irish coasts in 1450, and there is a chart of Andrea Bianca 
in the Ducal Library at Venice, of 1436, on which the names of Brazil and Antiilia 
occur. 

4. But whenever visited, whether in the 9th, 10th, or 15th century, or late in the 
16 th, when Virginia was first visited, the Indians vindicated all the leading traits and 
characteristics of the present day. Of all races on the face of the earth, who were 
pushed from their original seats, and cast back into utter barbarism, they have, 
apparently, changed the least; and have preserved their physical, and mental type, 
with the fewest alterations. They continue to reproduce themselves, as a race, even 
where their manners are comparatively polished, and their intellects enlightened; as 
if they were bound by the iron fetters of an unchanging type. In this unvarying 
and indomitable individuality, and in their fixity of opinion and general idiosyncracy, 
they certainly remind the reader of oriental races—of the Shemitic family of man. 

5. Viewed in extenso, the race appears to he composed of the fragments of various 
tribes of men, who bore, however, a general affinity to each other. With some small 
exceptions, they appear to be parts of a whole. Most of their languages and dialects 
are manifestly derivative. While they are transpositive and polysyllabic, they are 
of a type of synthesis more concrete and ancient in its structure than those of Rome 
and Greece, and exhibit no analogies to those of western and northern Europe, unless 
it be the Basque and Magyar. But they are philosophically homogeneous in syntax, 
capable of the most exact analysis and resolution into their original and simple 
elements; and while some of them impose concords, in reference to a wild aboriginal 
principle of animate and inanimate classes of nature, they are entirely una-synthetic. 
This- subject will he examined in its proper place. 

6 . As a race, there never was one more impracticable; more bent on a nameless 
principle of tribality; more averse to combinations for their general good; more deaf 
to the voice of instruction; more determined to pursue all the elements of their own 
destruction. They are still, as a body, nomadic in their manners and customs. They 
appear, on this continent, to have trampled on monumental ruins, some of which had 
their origin before their arrival, or without their participation as builders; though 
these are apparently ruins of the same generic race of men, but of a prior era. They 
have, in the north, no temples for worship, and live in a wild belief of the ancient 
theory of a diurgus, or Soul of the Universe, which inhabits and animates every thing. 
They recognise their Great Spirit in rocks, trees, cataracts, and clouds; in thunder 
and lightning; in the strongest tempests and the softest zephyrs; and this subtle 
and transcendental Spirit is believed to conceal himself in titular deities from human 
gaze, as birds and quadrupeds; and, in short, he is to be supposed to exist under 
every possible form in the world, animate and inanimate. 


16 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


7. While a Great Spirit thus constitutes the pith of Indian theory, the tribes live 
in a practical state of polytheism; and they have constructed a mythology in accord¬ 
ance with these sublimated views of matter and spirit, which is remarkable for the 
variety of its objects. To this they constantly appeal, at every step of their lives. 
They hear the great diurgic Spirit in every wind; they see him in every cloud; they 
fear him in every sound; and they adore him in every place that inspires awe. 
They thus make gods of the elements: they see his image in the sun; they acknow¬ 
ledge his mysterious power in fire; and wherever nature, in the perpetual struggle of 
matter to restore its equilibrium, assumes power, there they are sure to locate a god. 

8 . This is but half their capacity of stout belief. The Indian god of North Ame¬ 
rica exists in a dualistic form; there is a malign and a benign type of him; and 
there is continual strife, in every possible form, between these two antagonistical 
powers, for the mastery over the mind. They are in perpetual activity. Legions of 
subordinate spirits attend both. Nature is replete with them. When the eye fails 
to recognise them in material forms, they are revealed in dreams. Necromancy and 
witchcraft are two of their ordinary powers. They can, in a twinkling, transform 
men and animals. False hopes and fears, which the Indian believes to be true, 
spring up on every side. His notions of the spirit-world exceed all belief; and the 
Indian mind is thus made the victim of wild mystery, unending suspicion, and para¬ 
lyzing fear. Nothing could make him more truly a wild man. 

9. It is a religion of woods and wilds, and involves the ever-varying and confused 
belief in spirits and demons, gods of the water and gods of the rocks, and in every 
imaginable creation of the air, the ocean, the earth, and the sky,—of every possible 
power, indeed, which can produce secret harm or generate escape from it. Not to 
suffer, with the Indian, is to enjoy. Not to be in misery from these unnumbered 
hosts, is to be blest. He seems, indeed, to present the living problem of a race which 
has escaped from every good and truthful influence, and is determined to call into 
requisition every evil one, to prevent his return to the original doctrines of truth; for 
he constantly speaks, when his traditions are probed, of having lived in a better state; 
of having spoken a better and purer language, and of having been under the govern¬ 
ment of chiefs who exercised a more energetic power. Such, at least, I have found 
the tone of the Algonquin mind, during a long residence among them. 

B. ORIGIN. 

1. Where such a race can be supposed to have had their origin, history may vainly 
inquire. It probably broke off from one of the primary stocks of the human race, 
before history had dipped her pen in ink, or lifted her graver on stone. Herodotus 
is silent; there is nothing to be learned from Sanconiathus and the fragmentary 
ancients. The cuneiform and the Nilotic inscriptions, the oldest in the world, are 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


17 


mute. Our Indian stocks seem to be still more ancient. Their languages, their 
peculiar idiosyncrasy, all that is peculiar about them, denote this. 

2. Considered in every point of view, the Indian race appears to be of an old—a 
very old stock. Nothing that we have, in the shape of books, is ancient enough to 
recal the period of his origin, but the sacred oracles. If we appeal to these, a pro¬ 
bable prototype may be recognised in that branch of the race which may be called 
Almogic, 1 a branch of the Eber-ites; to whom, indeed, the revelation was not made, 
but who, as co-inhabitants for many ages of the same country, may be supposed to 
have been more or less acquainted with the fact of such revelation. Like them, they 
are depicted, at all periods of their history, as strongly self-willed, exclusive in their 
type of individuality, heedless, heady, impracticable, impatient of reproof or instruc¬ 
tion, and strongly bent on the various forms of ancient idolatry. Such are, indeed, 
the traits of the American tribes. 

3. What may be regarded, in their traditions of the world, their origin, and their 
opinions of man, as entitled to attention, is this. They believe in a supreme, trans¬ 
cendental power of goodness, or Great Merciful Spirit, by whom the earth, the ani¬ 
mals, and man were created; also, in a great antagonistical power, who can disturb 
the benevolent purposes of the other power. This person they call the Great Evil 
Spirit. The belief in this duality of gods is universal. 

4. They relate, generally, that there was a deluge at an ancient epoch, which 
covered the earth, and drowned mankind, except a limited number. They speak 
most emphatically of a future state, and appear to have some confused idea of rewards 
and punishments, which are allegorically represented. 

5. They regard the earth as their cosmogonic mother, and declare their origin to 
have been in caves, or in some other manner within its depths. The leading dogma 
of their theology is, however, that a future state is destined to reward them for evils 
endured in this; and that the fates of men are irrevocably fixed, and cannot be altered, 
except, it may be, by appeals to their seers, prophets, or jossakeeds, which finally, if 
we are to judge by the stolidity of an Indian’s death, they entirely forget, or appear to 
have no faith in. 

They declare themselves generally to be aborigines. Pure fables, or allegories, are 
all that support this. By one authority, they climbed up the roots of a large vine, 
from the interior to the surface of the earth; 2 by another, they casually saw light, 
while underground, from the top of a cavern in the earth. 3 In one way or another, 
most of the tribes plant themselves on the traditions of a local origin. Seeing many 
quadrupeds which burrow in the earth, they acknowledge a similar and mysterious 
relation. Tecumseh affirmed, in accordance with this notion, that the earth was his 


1 From Almodad, the son of Joktan 

2 Breckenridge’s Voyage up the Missouri. 

3 


Oneota, p. 207. 




18 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


mother; and Michabou held that the birds and beasts were his brothers. A few of 
the tribes, north and south, have something of a traditional value to add to these 
notions, expressive of an opinion of a foreign origin. This, as gleaned from various 
authors, will be now particularly mentioned. 

6 . These ideas, which vary greatly in different tribes, are mingled with fables and 
beliefs of the grossest absurdity. To separate tradition from mythologic belief, in the 
chaos of Indian intellect, has some resemblance to the attempt of a finite hand to 
separate light from darkness. The overflow of waters on the earth having been nar¬ 
rated, an event, by the way, which they attribute to the Great Evil Spirit, their tra¬ 
ditions skip over thousands of years, which they fill up as an epoch of mythology. In 
this, monsters, giants, spirits, genii, gods, and demons, wield their powers against each 
other, and fill the world with cannibalism, murders, and complicated fears and horrors. 
Buckland himself could not desire a fairer field for one big saurian to eat up another; 
but the era is wholly spoiled for the geological warfare of monsters, by making man 
live on earth at the same time, and exposing him to all the horrible mutations and 
mutilations of the tooth and claw era. The Algonquin Indians indeed say, in accord¬ 
ance with geological theory, that the animals at first had the rule on earth, and that 
man came in as a later creation. 

7. One of the chief features of this epoch of monstrosities, in each leading family 
of American Tribes, is the tradition of some great hero, giant-killer, or wise benefactor, 
whose name is exalted as a god, and to whose strength, wisdom, or sagacity, they 
attribute deliverance. Such is Quetzalcoatl among the Toltecs and Aztecs ; Atahen- 
tsic, Atatarho, and Tarenyawagon, among the Iroquois, and Micabo, or the Great Hare, 
popularly called Manabozho, among the Algonquins. 

8 . The next thing that is heard, in their history of the world, is accounts, variously 
related, of the arrival of Europeans on the coast, about the end of the 16th century. 
Erom that era to the present day, is, with the exceptions below recited, the period of 
authentic tradition. Most of the tribes possess traditions of the first appearance of 
white men among them, and some of them name the place. The Lenni Lenapes and 
Mohicans preserve the memory of the appearance and voyage of Hudson, up the river 
bearing his name, in 1609. The Iroquois have the tradition of a wreck, apparently 
earlier, on the southern coast; and the saving, and, after a time, the extinction of 
the infant colony in blood. This possibly may be the first colony of Virginia, in 
1588. The Algonquins have a tradition of Cartier’s visit to the St. Lawrence, in 1534, 
and call the French, to this day, People of the Wooden Vessel, or Wa-mitig-oazh. The 
Chippewas affirmed (in 1824) that seven generations of men had passed since that 
nation first came in to the lakes. 1 


1 If 1608, the period of the settlement of Canada, he taken as the era, and thirty years allowed to a genera¬ 
tion, this is a remarkable instance of accuracy of computation. 



NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


19 


C. TRADITIONS OF THE AN T E-C 0 LU M BI AN EPOCH. 

On this subject, we are confined to narrow limits. Three or four of the chief stocks 
now between the Equinox and the Arctic Circle, have preserved traditions which it is 
deemed proper to recite. 

1. In the voyages of Sir Alexander Mackenzie among the Arctic tribes, he relates of 
the Chepeweyans, that “ they have a tradition that they originally came from another 
country, inhabited by very wicked people, and had traversed a great lake, which was 
narrow and shallow, and full of islands, where they had suffered great misery, it being 
always winter, with ice and deep snow.” 1 In a subsequent passage, p. 387, he remarks 
—“ Their progress (the great Athapasca family) is easterly, and according to their 
own tradition, they came from Siberia; agreeing in dress and manners with the people 
now found upon the coasts of Asia.” 

2. The Shawanoes, an Algonquin tribe, have a tradition of a foreign origin, or a 
landing from a sea voyage. John Johnston, Esq., who was for many years their agent, 
prior to 1820, observes, in a letter of July 7th, 1819, published in the first volume of 
Archseologia Americana, p. 273, that they migrated from West Florida, and parts 
adjacent, to Ohio and Indiana, where this tribe was then located. 

“ The people of this nation,” he observes, “ have a tradition that their ancestors 
crossed the sea. They are the only tribe with which I am acquainted, who admit a 
foreign origin. Until lately, they kept yearly sacrifices for their safe arrival in this 
country. From where they came, or at what period they arrived in America, they 
do not know. It is a prevailing opinion among them, that Florida had been inhabited 
by white people, who had the use of iron tools. Blackhoof (a celebrated chief) affirms 
that he has often heard it spoken of by old people, that stumps of trees, covered with 
earth, were frequently found, which had been cut down by edged tools.” 

At a subsequent page, he says — “It is somewhat doubtful whether the deliverance 
which they celebrate has any other reference, than to the crossing of some great river, 
or an arm of the sea.” (P. 276, Arch. Am., Vol. I.) 

3. The next testimony is from Mexico. Montezuma told Cortez of a foreign con¬ 
nection between the Aztec race and the nations of the Old World. 

This tradition, as preserved by Don Antonio Solis, led that monarch to assure the 
conqueror of a relationship to the Spanish 2 crown, in the line of sovereigns. 

His speech is this : — “I would have you to understand before you begin your dis¬ 
course, that we are not ignorant, or stand in need of your persuasions, to believe that 
the great prince you obey is descended from our ancient Quetzalcoatl, Lord of the 


1 Mackenzie, CXII. Introd. 

2 This was of course entitled to no weight whatever, except as denoting a foreign origin. 




20 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


Seven Caves of the Navatlaques, and lawful king of those seven nations which gave 
beginning to our Mexican empire. By one of his prophecies, which we receive as an 
infallible truth, and by a tradition of many ages, preserved in our annals, we know 
that he departed from these countries, to conquer new regions in the East, leaving a 
promise, that in process of time, his descendants should return, to model our laws, and 
mend our government.” 1 

4. The general tradition of the nation, of their having originated in another land, 
and their migration by water, is preserved in the ideographic map of Botturini. 2 

By the accompanying Plates (1 and 2) they describe pictographically their first 
landing from Aztlan. This place is depicted as an island, surrounded on three sides 
by the sea. It has the representative sign of six principal houses, with a temple 
surmounted with the usual emblem of their priesthood; and with a king and queen, 
or chief and chieftainess. The former has a shoulder-knot, and long garments; the 
latter a looking-glass, with her hair in two front knots, and her feet drawn backwards, 
a, la mode de savage. Both are sitting. The next figure is a man in a boat, with 
flowing hair, and a long garment. This drawing typifies the passage. It is evi¬ 
dently a landing, and not a departure. 

Agreeably to the authors who urge the remotest date, this landing took place A. D. 
1038. Others think 1064. The Aztecs began to count their chronology, or tie up 
their years, as they term it, in 1 Tecapatl of their system of cycles. (109.) Their 
first residence was at Colhuacan, the Horn mountain, where there were eight chiefs, 
each denoted by his peculiar family badge, or what the Algonquins call totem. From 
this, the persons charged with carrying their idol, and sacerdotal apparatus, set forward, 
passing down the Pacific coast. In this journey they spent twenty-eight years, to 
2 Calli of their first cycle. During this time they had made three removes, reached 
the tropics, where they found fruits, growing upon trees, whose trunks were so large, 
that a man could hardly span them. They took three prisoners, who were sacrificed 
by their priests, by tearing out their hearts, in the same barbarous manner that was 
observed after this people became masters of Mexico. From this latter period, their 
chronology is carefully recorded. They made twenty-two removes, abiding various 
periods from four to twenty years at a place, making altogether one hundred and 
eighty-six years; till they reached the valley of Mexico. Agreeably to Clavigero, 
they reached Zampango in 1216, and migrated to Tizayocan in 1223. 

It is seen that while they dwelt at Chepoltepec, or the Locust Mountain (No. 20), 
they took prisoners, who were dragged before their chief magistrate. These prisoners 


•History of the Conquest of Mexico. Book iii. p. 61. 

2 First published in 1839 by Mr. John Delafield, Jr., at Cincinnati. 




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NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


21 


were of the wild hunter tribes, and are depicted as wearing the simple azian 1 of 
modern days. 

5. That the Aztecs were not aborigines, or the first inhabitants of the country, is 
proved by this fact. These prisoners are represented to he of both sexes. The males 
are quite naked, except the above-named garment, and both sexes are without shoes, 
whereas the conquerors are always, and in all positions, depicted with large shoes, 
except in the first figures on an island. These have large bows, resembling in their 
dimensions the Chinese shoe of the present time. They are also depicted with a 
doublet, while the captives are naked. 2 

6 . By the codex Tellurianus and the codex Vaticanus, which have been made 
accessible by the publication of Lord Kingsborough, it is perceived that there was no 
Aztec ruler at all, by the name of Quetzalcoatl, during the term of their supremacy. 
Quetzalcoatl was a Toltec. Montezuma, in speaking of the Lord of the Seven Caves, 
probably referred to an earlier period of their general history. There can be no 
pretence set up, indeed, that the Aztecs were aboriginals. They found a strong 
monarchy, under the Toltecs, to whom they became tributary; and these latter 
acknowledge the rule of the Olmecs before them, which Ferdinand D’Alva traces to 
the third century. All three tribes spoke kindred dialects. It was not, in fact, till 
A. D. 1399, when the Aztecs had been one hundred and eighty-three years, by their 
own account, in the valley of Anahuac, that they resolved to set up for themselves, 
and elected Ocampichtli emperor. Their whole era of rule, prior to the final conquest 
by Cortez, in 1520, had been but one hundred and twenty-one years. This story is 
told by their picture writings, which have been elaborately examined by the late Hon. 
Albert Gallatin, in the first volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological 
Society. 

7. It must be recollected that Montezuma ascribed the beginning of the Mexican 


1 Algonquin. An azian is a simple loin cloth. 


z Referenoes to Plates 1 and 2: — 


1. -ilhuitl — cacan . chiamoztoc. 

2. panhualaque. 


13. acalhuacan. 

14. Ecatipu. 


3. Colhuacan. 

4. chimalman. 

5. quetzalitl. 

6. cuauhcohuatt. 

• 7. Cohuatt. 

8. onca quitlamamlique— njxtcoal. 

9. oncan quinnotz njxtcoal. 

10. cuextecatl — Chocayan. 

11. Cohuatl — camac. 

12. Azcapotzalco. 


15. Cohuatitlan. 

16. tecpaiocan. 



pantitlan. 


19. Atlacuihuaan. 

20. Chapoltepec. 

21. Chimalaxocl. 

22. Huitzilihuitl. 

23. Coxcoxth. 


24. Colhuacan. 




22 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


empire to Quetzalcoatl, of Navatlaques, lawful chief of the seven bands, who had 
originated there. It was to this prince, who had, at an ancient era, mysteriously left 
them, and gone to the East, as the tradition ran, that the Aztecs attributed the origin 
of the Spanish monarchy, which made them the more ready, at first, to submit to their 
conquerors. They expected a succession or restoration of the empire to the descendants 
of a legitimate monarch. But when the Aztecs found their mistake, they rallied under 
Gautimozin, and put forth all their powers of resistance. 

8 . The tradition of the origin of the empire in bands of adventurers from the Seven 
Caves, rests upon the best authority we have of the Toltec race, supported by the oral 
opinion of the Aztecs in 1519. An examination of it by the lights of modern geogra¬ 
phy, in connection with the nautical theory of oceanic currents and the fixed courses 
of the winds in the Pacific, gives strong testimony in favor of an early expressed 
opinion in support of a migration in high latitudes. It is now considered probable 
that those caves were seated in the Aleutian Chain. This chain of islands con¬ 
nects the continents of Asia and America at the most practicable points; and it 
begins precisely opposite to that part of the Asiatic coast north-east of the Chinese 
empire, and quite above the Japanese group, where we should expect the Mongolic and 
Tata hordes to have been precipitated upon those shores. On the American side of the 
trajet, extending south of the peninsula of Onalasca, there is evidence, in the existing 
dialects of the tribes, of their being of the same generic group with the Toltec stock. 
By the data brought to fight by Mr. Hale, the ethnographer to the United States 
Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes, and from other reliable sources, the 
philological proof is made to be quite apparent. The peculiar Aztec termination of 
substantives in tl, which was noticed at Nootka Sound, and which will be found in 
the appended specimens of the languages of Oregon, furnished by Mr. Wyeth, are too 
indicative, in connection with other resemblances in sound, and in the principles of 
construction, noticed by Mr. Hale, to be disregarded. 

9. In seeking the facts of modem geography and nautical science on the probability 
of such an origin for the Indian population of Central and Mexican North America,— 
not the tribes of the Andes,—the observations accumulated on the meteorology and 
currents of the Pacific and Indian seas, at the National Observatory, have furnished 
a new point of fight. Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Hamilton Smith, of Edinburgh, 
author of the most recent, 1 and, in many respects, the best reasoned treatise on the 
Natural History of the Human Species, appears to have been the first observer to 
throw out the idea of the Chichimecs—a rude Mexican people of the Toltecan lineage 
—having migrated from this quarter, taking, however, the word “Caves” to be a 
figure denoting a vessel, catamaran, or canoe ; and not employing it in a literal sense. 

Lieut. M. Maury, U. S. N., the chief director of the American Nautical Observatory 


1 1848. 



NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


23 


at Washington, to whom I transmitted the work, with particular reference to this 
chapter, puts a more literal construction on the tradition of Quetzalcoatl, and brings 
to bear an amount of modern observation on the point, which it would be unjust to 
withhold from the reader. 

10. “I have received,” he remarks, “your letter of the 14th, [Jan. 1850,] and read 
with interest the passages you were so kind as to mark between pp. 232 and 261, 
‘ Natural History of the Human Species, by Col. Hamilton Smith.’ 

“ Pray accept my thanks for this gratification. 

“At page 261, the Colonel had a stronger case than he imagined. Referring to the 
Chichimec legend of the seven ‘caves,’ he conjectures that the Chichimecs might 
originally have been Aleutians, and that ‘caves,’ if not denoting islands,*might have 
referred to canoes. 

“ The Aleutians of the present day actually live in caves, or subterranean apartments, 
which they enter through a hole in the top. They are the most bestial of the species. 
In their habits of intercourse they assuredly copy after the seal and the whale. 

“ Those islands' grow no wood. For their canoes, fishing implements, and cave-hold 
utensils, the natives depend upon the drift-wood which is cast ashore, much of which 
is camphor wood. And this you observe is another link in the chain—which is grow¬ 
ing quite strong—of evidence which for years I have been seeking, in the confirma^ 
tion of a ‘gulf-stream’ near there, and which runs from the shores of China over 
towards our north-west coast. 

“But I am telling things you already know, and about which you did not ask; and 
lest you should style me a fast witness, I ’ll answer as best I can your several inter¬ 
rogatories. 

“1st. You wish me to state whether, in my opinion, the Pacific and Polynesian 
waters could have been navigated in early times—supposing the winds had been then 
as they now are—in balsas, floats, and other rude vessels of early ages. 

“Yes; if you had a supply of provision, you could ‘run down the trades’ in the 
Pacific, on a log. 

“ There is no part of the world where nature would tempt savage man more 
strongly to launch out upon the open sea with his bark, however frail. 

“ Most of those islands are surrounded by coral reefs, between which and the shore 
the water is as smooth as a mill-pond. 

“ The climate and the fish invite the savage into the water, and the mountains 
which separate valley from valley, in many of these islands, together with the pow¬ 
erful vegetable activity, make it more easy for the native to go from valley to valley 
by water than by land; for the scorige on the mountains, with the bramble by the 
way, offer barriers to those naked people that are almost impassable. 

“ On the other hand, there is the refreshing water, the smooth bay, the floating log, 
or even the unhusked cocoa-nut, to buoy him along. I have seen children there, not 


24 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


more than three years old, swimming off to the ship, simply with a cocoa-nut to 
hold by. 

“This voyage accomplished, there is the island in the distance to attract and allure; 
and the next step would be—if we imagine an infant colony on an island of a group— 
to fit out an expedition to some of those to leeward. 

“ The native then finds a hollow log, that is split in two. Like children here, he 
has dammed up his little mountain streamlets with a dam of clay across. He does 
the same with his trough, kneading the clay and making a dam with it across either 
end. He puts in a few cocoa-nuts, a calabash of water, breaks a green branch thick 
with foliage, sticks it up for a sail, and away he goes before the wind, at the rate of 
three or four miles the hour. I have seen them actually do this, their little fleets 
like * Birnam wood coming to Dunsinane’ by water. But by some mishap, in the 
course of time, this frail bark misses the island or falls to leeward: the only chance 
then is to submit to the winds and the waves, and go where they will bear. 

“ But the South Sea Islander would soon get above vessels with clay bows and 
mud sterns. 

“I visited the Marquesas Islands in 1829. The natives were then in the fig-leaf 
state; and the old chief offered to make me their king, if I would stay with them. 
Pardon the episode: I ’ll try to stick to your question; though you have led me 
where there are so many flowery paths, I find it difficult to withstand the temptation 
of bolting right off into some of them. 

“ The Marquesas Islanders make large canoes out of little slats of wood;—each 
man has a slat. At the end of the voyage he carries his piece home with him. 
When the canoe is wanted for another voyage, every man comes down with his 
timber. 

“You have seen bread-trays in the negro cabins of the South and West, after 
having been split, sewed together with white oak splits ? In this way their canoes 
are sewed together with cords of cocoa-nut fibre, and the holes puttied up with clay. 
These canoes will sometimes hold twenty rowers. They perform regular voyages 
among the islands of the group; and from other islands they go off to greater 
distances. 

“ In the Pacific, between the Equator and 25° or 30° S., it is easy for such vessels 
to sail in any direction between north around by the west, to south-west and north 
of the Equator, to the 25th or 30th parallel. It is likewise easy for such rude vessels 
to sail in any course between north-west around by the west, to south. 

“ It is difficult to get to the eastward, within the trade-wind region. 

“ In reply to your second question, as to the possibility of long voyages before the 
invention of the compass, I answer that such chance voyages were not only possible, 
but more than probable. 

“ When we take into consideration the position of North America with regard to 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


25 


Asia, of New Holland with regard to Africa, with the winds and currents of the 
ocean, it would have been more remarkable that America should not have been 
peopled from Asia, or New Holland from Africa, than that they should have been. 

“Captain Ray, of the whale-ship Superior, fished two years ago in Behring’s Straits. 
He saw canoes going from one continent to the other. 

“Besides this channel, there is the ‘gulf-stream,’ like the current already alluded 
to from the shores of China. Along its course, westerly winds are the prevailing 
winds; and we have well-authenticated instances in which these two agents have 
brought Japanese mariners in disabled vessels over to the coasts of America. 

“ Now look at the Indian Ocean, and see what an immense surface of water is 
exposed there to the heat of the torrid zone, without any escape for it, as it becomes 
expanded, but to the South. 

“Accordingly, we have here the genesis of another ‘gulf-stream,’ which runs along 
the east coast of Africa. 

“ The physical causes at work, were there not some other agents, such as the form 
of the bottom, the configuration of the land, opposing currents of cold water, &c., 
would give the whole of this current a south-easterly direction. 

“We know that a part of it, however, comes into the Atlantic by what is called 
the Lagullas current. The whales, whose habits of migration, &c., I am investigating, 
indicate clearly enough the presence of a large body of warm water to the south of 
New Holland. 

“ This is where the gulf-stream from the Indian Ocean ought to be; and there I 
confidently expect, when I come to go into that part of the ocean with the thermo¬ 
meter, as we are preparing to do with our thermal charts, to find a warm current 
coming down from Madagascar and the coast of Africa. 

“ There was then in the early ages the island of Madagascar to invite the African out 
with his canoe, his raft, or more substantial vessel. There was this current to bear 
him along at first at the rate of nearly, if not quite, one hundred miles a day, and by 
the time the current began to grow weak, it would have borne him into the region of 
westerly winds, which, with the aid of the current, would finally waft him over to the 
southern shores of New Holland. Increasing and multiplying here, he would travel 
north to meet the sun, and in the course of time he would extend himself over to the 
other islands, as Papua and the like. 

“ If I recollect aright, the Gallipagos Islands, though so near the coast, and under 
the line, with a fine soil and climate, were, when discovered, uninhabited. Now that 
part of the coast near which they are, is peculiarly liable to calms and baffling winds, 
to the distance out to sea of several hundred miles: there was no current to drift, nor 
wind to blow the native from the coast, and lodge him here. 

“From present knowledge of currents it can be hardly justified in the supposition 
that South America was peopled from Asia by vessels being driven south of the 
4 


26 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


Equator to the American shores. The distance by that route—west wind region 
south of the S. E. trades'—is not less than 10,000 miles, without any islands, except 
New Zealand, for a resting-place. The route by the Aleutian Islands with the North 
Pacific ‘Gulf Stream’ already mentioned, is a much more probable route. 

“ When we look at the Pacific, its islands, the winds and currents, and consider the 
facilities there that nature has provided for drifting savage man with his rude imple¬ 
ments of navigation about, we shall see that there the inducements held out to him 
to try the sea are powerful. With the bread-fruit and the cocoa-nut—man’s natural 
barrels there of beef and bread, and the calabash, his natural water-cask, he had all 
the stores for a long voyage already at hand. You will thus perceive the rare 
facilities which the people of those shores enjoyed in their rude state for attempting 
voyages.” 

11. Thus we have traditionary gleams of a foreign origin of the race of the North 
American Indians, from separate stocks of nations, extending at intervals from the 
Arctic Circle to the Valley of Mexico. Dim as these traditions are, they shed some 
light on the thick historical darkness which shrouds the period. They point decidedly 
to a foreign—to an oriental, if not a Shemitic, origin. Such an origin has from the 
first been inferred. At whatever point the investigation has been made, the eastern 
hemisphere has been found to contain the physical and mental prototypes of the race. 
Language, mythology, religious dogmas—the very style of architecture, and their 
calendar, as far as it is developed, point to that fruitful and central source of human 
dispersion and nationality. 

It is no necessary consequence, however, of the principles of dispersion, that it 
should have been extended to this continent, as the result of regular design. Design 
there may indeed have been. Asia and Polynesia, and the Indian Ocean, have 
abounded, for centuries, with every element of national discord. Pestilence or 
predatory wars, have pushed population over the broadest districts of Persia, India, 
China, and all Asia. The isles of the sea have been the nurseries of nations. Half 
the globe has been settled by differences of temperature, oceanic currents, the search 
of food, thoughtless adventure, or other forms of what is called mere accident, and not 
purposed migrations. All these are so many of the ways of Providence by which not 
only the tropical and temperate regions, but the torrid and arctic zones, have been 
peopled. He must have read history with a careless eye, who has not perceived the 
work of human dispersion to have been promoted by the discords of various races, 
and the meteorology of the globe, as affecting its leading current of winds and waves. 

But there is a class of inquirers who are not disposed to see the will of a supreme 
and guiding intelligence in all this — who are prone to see the laws of species invaded 
— who lay very great stress on natural development, who are ready to explain how 
even planets are formed from nebula), and regard the whole system of nature as endowed 


NATIONAL AND TRIBAL HISTORY. 


27 


with the capacity of increasing the number of its organic forms. 1 To such transcen¬ 
dental reasoning, the Indian may be deemed a new species, not a new variety of man 
— differing wholly in his mental and physical type from the Red man of the east — 
differing, in fact, in his physiology and psychology, from every thing but himself. 

He has been found to possess the elements of a peculiar character; latitude and 
longitude have much affected his manners and customs; food and climate have produced 
very marked varieties of the race; his very lexicography and principles of grammatical 
utterance have been affected: but these changes have not produced a new species. 

It is in this view that the subject of inquiry has been invested with new interest, 
which has led me to scrutinize their traditions the more diligently; and it imparts an 
additional impulse to the following paper, in which some considerations are offered as 
the immediate result of the preceding examinations on the derivative opinions, theology, 
and mental type of the race, viewed as a distinct variety of the human species. 


1 This allusion to the class of philosophers who coincide in the views of the author of the “ Vestiges of 
Creation” will not, it is hoped, be deemed out of place. 










II. THE MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


A. GENERIC VIEWS. 

1. Has the race claims to a peculiarity of type ? 

2. Sun worship. 

3. Sacred fire. 

4. Oriental doctrine of Good and Evil. 

5. Idea of the germ of creation under the symbol of an egg. 

6. Doctrines of the Magi. 

7. Duality of the soul. 

8. Metempsychosis. 

9. Omens from the flight of birds. 

10. Images and omens drawn from the sky. 

11. Indian philosophy of Good and Evil. 

12. Theology of the Indian jugglers and hunter priests. 

13. Great antiquity of oriental knowledge. 

14. Nature and objects of Brahminical worship. 

15. Antiquities of America. 

16. Antiquities of the United States. 

17. Antiquity of philological proof. 

18. Hindoo Theology. 

19. Eternity of life. 

20. Difficulty of comparing savage and civilized nations. 

21. A dualistic deity. 

22. Worship of the elements. Transmigration. 

23. What stock of nations ? 

24. Cast. Incineration of the body. 

25. Offerings to ancestors. 

26. Offerings at meals, or on journeys, 

27. Parallelism of idolatrous customs among the Jews, 

28. Extreme antiquity of Hindoo rites, 

29. Indian languages. Shemitic, 


(29) 


30 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


30. Manners and customs. Mongolic. 

31. Conclusions of the early Anglo-Saxons. 

32. Permanency of the physiological type. 

33. Mental type non-progressive. 

34. Proof of orientalism from astronomy. 

35. Proof from Aztec astronomy. 

1. Do the traits we have been contemplating tend to establish for the Indian mind 
and character a type of race which may be deemed as peculiar ? It may further the 
end in view, to examine this question by the light of their religious and psychological 
notions and dogmas; their mythology, and their conceptions of a Deity. They have 
also, in the Toltecan group, a calendar and system of astronomy, and a style of 
architecture, which are eminently calculated to arrest attention. More than all, the 
tribes over the whole continent possess a class of languages, which, by their principles 
of grammatical construction, though running through great changes, vindicate claims 
to philosophical study. 

2. Are their traits, opinions, and idiosyncrasies, indigenous or American; or are they 
peculiar to the Indian mind as developed on this continent; and not derivative from 
other lands ? If so, in what do their original conceptions of art. or science, religion or 
opinion, consist? 

Not in the adoration, or worship of the Sun, certainly! 

That idolatrous practice had its origin in Persia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea; whence 
it spread, east and west, nearly the world over. The worship of the Sun and Moon is 
mentioned by Job, and was the prevalent idolatry of the land of Uz. It is also seen 
that this form of idolatry was charged among the sins of the Jews, in the days of 
Ezekiel, as having been introduced secretly in the temple worship at Jerusalem. 
(Ezekiel viii. 16.) 

Oblations and public thanksgivings were decreed at Rome to the Sun, which was 
installed among the multiform gods of that empire. (Tacitus, Yol. III., p. 242.) 

Fire was deemed by the followers of Zoroaster as a symbol of the Deity. That 
philosopher admitted no other visible object of worship. It was alone the supreme 
emblem of divine intelligence. 1 

Nothing is more notorious than the former prevalence of this worship among the 
Peruvian and Mexican tribes; where, however, it was mixed with the practice of 
human sacrifices, and the grossest rites. The Aztecs made offerings to the Sun upon 
the highest teocalli, and sung hymns to it. Sacred fire was supplied alone by the 
priesthood, and it was the foundation of their power. 2 

North of the Gulf of Mexico, the doctrine prevailed with more of its original oriental 


1 Go wan’s Ancient Fragments, p. 135. 


2 Prescott’s Conquest of Mexico. 



MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


31 


simplicity, and free from the horrid rites which had marked it in the valley of Anahuac, 
and among the spurs of the Andes. 

The tribes of the present area of the United States would admit of no temples, but 
made their sacred fires in the recesses of the forest. They sung hymns to the Sun as 
the symbol of the Great Spirit. 1 Such is their present practice in the forests. They 
were guilty, it is true, at all periods of their history, of shocking cruelties to prisoners 
taken in war, but they never offered them as sacrifices to the Deity. 

3. They never use common fire for uncommon purposes. 2 Sacred fire is extracted 
on ceremonial occasions by percussion; most commonly with the flin t,, 3 Opwaguns, 
or pipes, with the incense of tobacco, are thus lighted whenever their affairs, or the 
business in hand, is national, or relates to their secret societies. This object, so lighted, 
is first offered by genuflections to the four cardinal points, and the zenith. It is then 
handed by the master of ceremonies to the chiefs and public functionaries present, 
who are each expected to draw a few whiffs ceremonially. Sir Alexander Mackenzie 
has well described this ceremony at page 97 of his Voyages. 

In this primitive practice of having no temples for their worship, extracting their 
sacred fire for ceremonial occasions by percussion, and keeping their worship up to its 
simple standard of a sort of transcendentalism, as taught by the oriental nations, to 
whom we have referred, the Indian tribes of the United States indicate their claims to 
a greater antiquity than those of the southern part of the continent. They appear to 
have been pushed from their first positions by tribes of grosser rites and manners. 

“ The disciples of Zoroaster,” says Herodotus, “ reject the use of temples, of altars, 
and of statues; and smile at the folly of those nations who imagine that the gods are 
sprung from, or bear any affinity with the human nature. The tops of the highest 
mountains are the places chosen for their sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the prin¬ 
cipal worship. The Supreme God, who fills the wide arch of heaven, is the object to 
which they are addressed.” 4 

4. Take another of their dogmas, and try whether it has the character of an original 
or derivative belief. We allude to the two principles of Good and Evil, for which the 
Iroquois have the names of Inigorio, the Good mind, and Inigohahetgea, or the Evil 
mind. (Vide Cusic’s Ancient History of the Six Nations ; also the Wyandot tradition 
of Oriwahento .) 5 This is one of the earliest oriental beliefs. It was one of the leading 
dogmas of Zoroaster. Goodness, according to this philosopher, is absorbed in light; 


1 See specimens among the pictographic writings in the sequel. 

2 Mackenzie. 

3 The Iroquois used an apparatus for giving velocity to a turning upright stick, on a basis of wood, called 
Da-ya-ya-da-ga-ne-at-ha. (See the Third Report of the Regents of the New York University, on the State 
Collection of Natural History, Antiquities, &c. Paper by Lewis H. Morgan, Esq., p. 88.) 

4 Herodotus. * Onedta, p. 208. 



32 


MENTAL TYPE OE THE INDIAN RACE. 


Evil is buried in darkness. Ormusd is the principle of benevolence, true wisdom, and 
happiness to men. Ahriman is the author of malevolence and discord. By his malice 
he has long pierced the egg of Ormusd; in other words, has violated the harmony of 
the works of creation. 1 

Gibbon informs us that the doctrines of Zoroaster had been so greatly corrupted that 
Artaxerxes ordered a great council of the magi to revise them, by whom it was settled 
on the basis of the two great and fundamental principles denoted. 2 

The North American tribes of our latitudes appear to have felt that the existence 
of evil in the world was incompatible with that universal benevolence and goodness 
which they ascribe to the Merciful Great Spirit. Iroquois theology meets this question: 
they account for it by supposing, at the creation, the birth of two antagonistical Powers 
of miraculous energy, but subordinate to the Great Spirit, one of whom is perpetually 
employed to restore the discords and mal-adaptations, in the visible creation, of the 
other. 3 

The earliest notice we have of this doctrine, among the United States tribes, is in 
the journal of a voyage to North America in 1721 by P. de Charlevoix, (Vol. 2, page 
143,) in which he mentions the theology of the Iroquois, the descent of Atahentsic, 
and the birth of the antagonistical infants. It is more fully stated by Cusic, in 1825, 
and by Oriwahento, in 1837, as above referred to. 

5. The idea of the allegory of the egg of Ormusd has been disclosed, in the progress 
of western settlements, by the discovery of an earth work situated on the summit of a 
hill in Adams county, Ohio. 4 This hill is one hundred and fifty feet above the surface 
of Brush Creek. It represents the coil of a serpent seven hundred feet long; but, it 
is thought, would reach, if deprived of its curves, one thousand feet. The jaws of the 
serpent are represented as widely distended, as if in the act of swallowing. In the 
interstice is an oval, or egg-shaped mound. The oriental notion, thus depicted, is too 
peculiar to render it probable that it originated here. 

6. Thus far, the beliefs of the more northerly of our tribes appear to be of a 
Chaldee-Persic character.® It is no proof that nations have been necessarily connected 
in their history because they coincide in the rites of sun-worship. Other traits must 
also coincide. But, to those who object to the idea of the worship of the sun and moon 
as a natural species of idolatry for barbarous nations to select, between whom, however, 
no previous connexion or intercourse necessarily existed, it is replied, that this idea 
did not propagate itself west, with the idolatrous Scythians, at least, beyond Rome, 
where Sylla established the rite of an eternal Fire; nor did it re-appear among the 


1 Abstract of the theology of Zoroaster. 

2 History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 

4 Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 


3 Iroquois Cosmogony, Part YI. 

5 Notes to Ontwa on Eternal Fire. 



MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


33 


Celts, Cimbri, Teutons, Iberians, Sclavonians, and other tribes who filled all Europe, to 
its extent in Scandinavia and the British isles. Nor do we find that the doctrine of 
the two principles of Good and Evil, so extensively believed by the nations of 
Central Asia, were spread at all in that direction. The Celtic priests had no such 
notions, nor do we hear of them among the worshippers of Odin: they both had an 
entirely different mythology. It is remarkable that there was no sun-worship in the 
area of Western Europe. The propagation of the doctrines of the Magi appears to 
have been among the tribes east and south of the original seats of their power and 
influence. Egypt had them as early as the Exodus; and it has been seen that the 
idolatrous tribes of Chaldea were addicted to the worship of the sun and moon. 1 

7. It has been found that the Indians of the United States believe in the duality of 
the soul. This ancient doctrine is plainly announced as existing among the Algonquins, 
in connection with, and as a reason for, the custom of the deposit of food with the 
dead, and of leaving an opening in the grave covering, which is a very general 
custom. 2 All our tribes make such deposits of viands. 

8. They also believe in the general doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigra¬ 
tion of souls. Pythagoras is supposed to have got his first notions on the subject, 
from the Egyptian priests, and the recluse Brahmins. But wherever he imbibed the 
notion, he transmitted it as far as his name had influence. 3 The notions of the 
northern tribes on this subject are shown incidentally in the oral tales which I first 
began to collect among the Algonquins and Dacotas in 1822, and which are embodied 
in Algic Researches. 4 The soul of man is seen, in these curious legends, to be thought 
immortal and undying, the vital spark passing from one object to another. This object 
of the new life in general is not man, but some species of the animated creation; or 
even, it may be, for a time, an inanimate object. The circumstances which determine 
this change, do not appear. Nor can it be affirmed, that the doctrine is parallel, in all 
respects, to the theory of the Samian philosopher. It would seem that the superior 
will of the individual, as a spiritually possessed person, himself determined the form 
of his future life. 

9. Great attention is paid by the North American Indians to the flight of birds, 
whose motions in the upper regions of the atmosphere are considered ominous. Those 
of the carnivorous species, are deemed indicative of events in war, and they are the 
symbols employed in their war-songs, and extemporaneous chants. The gathering of 
these species, to fatten upon dead bodies left upon the field of battle, is the image 
strongly thrown forward, in their chants, and these warlike Pe-na-si-wug are deemed 
to be ever prescient of the times and places of conflict, which are denoted by their 
flight. As the carnivora are familiar with the upper currents of the atmosphere, 


1 Job. 2 Oneota. 3 Lempri&re. 

4 Part I. Indian Tales and Legends, 1839. Harpers, New York. 




34 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN EACE. 


where their gods of the air dwell, their association, in the Indian mind, with these 
deities of battle, as messengers to carry intelligence, is a general belief. But no trace 
of omens, derived from the examination, after death, of entrails of any kind, as 
denoting futurity, a custom so prevalent among the ancients, has ever been found, 
or is believed to exist. 

10. Minute observation is also bestowed by them upon the meteorology of the clouds. 
Their size, their color, their motions, their relative position to the sun and to the 
horizon, form the subject of a branch of knowledge, which is in the hands of their medas 
and prophets. Important events are often decided by predictions founded on such 
observations. The imagery of this exalted view of the celestial atmosphere, with its 
starry back-ground, and its warfare of thunder, lightning, electricity, aurora borealis, 
and storms, is very much employed in their personal names. This imagery is capable 
of being graphically seized on, by their transpositive languages, and is highly poetic. 
The habit of such observation, has evidently been nurtured by living for ages, as the 
race has, in the open air, and without houses to obscure every possible variety of 
atmospheric juxtaposition and display. 

11. We might continue this discussion of opinions and beliefs which appear to he 
hidden in the mythology of the Indian mind, or are only brought out in an incidental 
manner, and which appear not to have had an indigenous origin ; but we should do 
great injustice to the Indian character, not to mention by far the most prominent of 
their beliefs, so far as they govern his daily practices. We allude to the doctrine of 
Manitoes, or what may be denominated Manitology. And here appears to be the 
strongest ground for originality of conception. All the tribes have some equivalent 
to this. We use the Algonquin word, because that is best known. The word Manito, 
when not used with a prefix or accent, does not mean the Deity, or GreakSpirit. It 
is confined to a spiritual, or mysterious power. The doctrine that a man may possess 
such a power, is well established in the belief of all the tribes. All their priests and 
prophets assert the possession of it, but the possession is not believed, by even the 
blindest zealot or impostor, to be supreme, or equal to that of the Great Merciful Spirit, 
or diurgic deity. A man may fast to obtain this power. The initial fast at the age 
of puberty, which every Indian undergoes, is for light to be individually advertised 
and become aware of this personal Manito. When revealed in dreams, his purpose is 
accomplished, and he adopts that revelation, which is generally some bird or animal, 
as his personal or guardian Manito. He trusts in it in war and peace; and there is 
no exigency in life, in or from which he believes it cannot help or extricate him. 
The misfortune is, for his peace and welfare of mind, that these Manitoes are not of 
equal and harmonious power. One is constantly supposed to be “ stronger,” or to have 
greater spiritual powers than another. Hence, the Indian is never sure that his 
neighbor is not under the guardianship of a Manito stronger than his own. 

This is not half the worst of the doctrine. There are malignant, as well as benevo- 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


35 


lent Manitoes. Here the two principles of Good and Evil, which we have discussed 
as of oriental origin, develope themselves. The evil Manito is constantly exercising 
his power to counteract or overreach the good. And thus the Indian, who believes in 
a passive Great Spirit, or Gezha Manito, with no other attributes but goodness and 
ubiquity, is left in a perpetual and horrible state of fear. His Great Spirit is believed 
to rule the earth and the sky, and to be the Wa-zha-waud, or maker of the world; 
but he leaves these two antagonistical classes of Manitoes to war with each other, and 
to counteract each other’s designs, to fill the world with turmoils, and, in fact, to govern 
the moral destinies of mankind. 

We thus have the doctrine of Ormusd and Ariman, of the oriental world, reproduced 
in another form, but one not less fraught with elements to disturb the harmony of 
creation, to pierce the egg of Ormusd, and to render the life of the simple believer in 
this dogma an unending scene of discord, dismay, and tumult. 

12. There is no attempt by the hunter, priesthood, jugglers, or powwows, which can be 
gathered from their oral traditions, to impute to the great Merciful Spirit the attribute 
of justice, or to make man accountable to Him, here or hereafter, for aberrations from 
virtue, good will, truth, or any form of moral right. With benevolence and pity as 
prime attributes, the Great Transcendental Spirit of the Indian does not take upon 
himself a righteous administration of the world’s affairs, but, on the contrary, leaves 
it to be filled, and its affairs, in reality, governed, by demons and fiends in human form. 
Here is the Indian theology. Every one will see how subtile it is; how well calculated 
to lead the uninformed hunter mind captive, and make it ever fearful; and how striking 
a coincidence its leading dogma of the two opposing principles of Good and Evil affords, 
with the oriental doctrines to which we have referred. 

13. It is difficult to introduce comparisons between the barbarous tribes of America, 
and the existing civilized races of Asia. The latter, east of the Indus, at least, and 
bordering on the Indian Ocean, are called non-progressive races; but they possess a 
type of civilization, founded on agriculture, arts, and letters, which is very ancient. 
They have practised the science of numbers and astronomy from the earliest times. 
Most, or all of them, have alphabets. The cuneiform character was in use in the 
days of Darius Hystaspes. 1 Many of the arts are supposed to have had their origin 
there. The use of iron among them is without date. Their systems of religious 
philosophy were committed to writing, if not put in print, before America was 
discovered. The Chinese knew the art of printing, before it was discovered in Europe. 
They were acquainted with the powers of the magnet, and the mariner’s compass. 2 
Naval architecture has belonged to the Chinese and Japanese, time out of mind. 3 The 
Hindostanees built temples in India of enormous magnitude and exact proportions, 
long, it is believed, before the use of Egyptian or Grecian architecture. The sword, 


1 Rawlinson. 


Voltaire’s Essay on History. 


3 Duhalde’s China. 





36 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


the spear, the bow and arrow, and the shield and banner, came into their hands from 
the earliest days of the Assyrian, Chaldean, and Persian monarchies. 1 

14. From Professor Wilson’s Lectures on the Hindus, the religious system and prac¬ 
tices of these nations are based upon a confused notion of God, but have degenerated 
into the most monstrous and sublime absurdities. Their systems are, one and all, 
ideal, contemplative, full of mysticism, and extravagantly transcendental. They have 
not, like the Greeks, so much deified men and made gods of heroes, as they have 
shown a proneness to deify events, powers, and attributes. The creation, the preser¬ 
vation, and the regeneration, or reproductive powers of man, are worshipped symboli¬ 
cally in different phases, as the fikst cause. Brahma is creation, Yishnu preservation, 
and Siva reproduction, among the Hindus. 2 Setting out with an idea of Monotheism, 
they have in this way multiplied their objects of adoration, till they are the most 
subtile and extravagant polytheists on the globe. Thirty thousand gods have the 
Hindus alone. All the elements are deified, and their worship has become proverbial 
for the gross character of its idolatry. 

15. Many have supposed that the oriental arts and knowledge were transferred to 
this continent at early epochs, and have beheld evidence of this in the ruins of temples, 
teocalli, and other structures and vestiges of ancient art, scattered over the country. 
We shall know more of this, when we come to find and decipher inscriptions. As yet, 
very little is known, scientifically, of American ruins and monuments of antiquity. 
We have done very little beyond the popular description of certain remains of ancient 
architecture. The first accounts of Del Rio of the ruins of Palenque, electrified the 
antiquarian world. 

Yiews and descriptions of the buildings and temples of a former race in Central 
America and Yucatan, served to -confirm this. Generally, very high-toned theories 
were in vogue, in speaking of the ancient period of American civilization. The 
descriptions of Stephens, and the artistic views of Catherwood, have done much to 
render the existence of these ruins in Central America and Yucatan an element of 
popular knowledge. In our own country, Mr. Norman has added to this diffusion. 
In Europe, the spread of this knowledge has been in the hands of men of research. 
Denmark has stepped forward, to separate the era of the Scandinavian, from the other 
ruins and vestiges of ancient occupancy. 3 

16. In the United States, there has been much speculation upon our mounds and 
earth works, from the era of Mr. Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia, in 1778, to the present 
day. Generally, the remarks, with much, but various degrees of merit, have wanted 
elementariness, and not unfrequently seem open to the criticism of high theories upon 
very slender materials. There has been some attempt, it would seem, by ancient 


1 Rollin’s Universal History. 

2 H. H. Wilson’s Two Lectures before the University of Oxford, on the Hindus. London, T84I. 

8 Antiquitates Americana. 



37 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

hands in the south, to imitate the gigantic piles of the Euphrates and the Nile. The 
type of the teocalli and terraced pyramid cannot be successfully sought, short of these 
localities. But our ruins are wholly without the oriental inscriptive arts of these 
early structures of mankind. M. Jomard has, indeed, identified Lybian characters in 
one of the tumuli of the Ohio valley. 1 The knowledge of the inhabitants of Persia, 
of India, and of China, is very ancient. We are not authorized to conclude that 
the ignorant only migrate. 

17. Races of men carry with them two generic traits, namely, arts and ideas. The 
latter are the most ancient, for a man must have the conception of a thing before he 
can construct the thing itself. Opinions, therefore, of God, of worship, of astronomy, 
in fine, the pre-thoughts or principles of every art and science, should be sought as the 
earliest evidences of the connections and affinities of races. Thought and words are 
older than works. This truth gives to philology, as a proof of antiquity, its best claim. 
Races who thought in a particular manner, or whose thoughts succeeded each other 
in a certain fixed train, spoke grammatically alike. ‘I see a horse,’ or ‘A horse I 
see,’ are phrases that indicate two classes of syntax. 

18. The opinion that there is a God, that matter was created by him, and continues 
to exist by his will, is a basis for the Hindu theology, however corrupted. 2 That 
this power and harmony of the creation is kept up, is continually opposed to another 
power, and is in danger of being destroyed by it, appears to have been one of the 
earliest philosopical and religious errors. 3 Man, as the chief possessor of creation, is 
subject to this disturbing power. Heat, air, water, earth, light, and darkness, affect 
him. Hence his offerings to them, under various names, in heathen theology and 
mythology, and the origin of elemental worship. We have given Zoroaster as the 
earliest author who is known as sustaining this theory under the symbols of fire 
and the sun. The Brahmins early taught it, worshipping as a primary dogma, 
as we have stated, the creation, the continuance, and the propagation of the race as 
different hypostases of God: they also enthroned the elements as objects of worship. 

19. The Hindus regard the eternity of life as the great evil. Its indestructibility 
by death is the grand object from which they seek to be delivered. There is no rest 
for the soul: it wanders; it suffers various transmigrations from one object to another; 
and is the great burthen to be dropped. Pythagoras, as stated and believed by the 
Greeks, is known to have taken this notion from the Brahmins. It is clear, from the 
writings of the Sanscrit professor at Oxford, that they anciently taught, and now 
practise it, as one of the prime elements of their theology. They teach, also, a 
succession of creations or worlds. 

20. We have said that it is difficult to compare the notions of our Indians with 


' Un Pierre G-r&ve, &c. 
3 Zoroaster. 


* Wilson. 

4 Vide Wilson’s Lectures. 




38 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


those of the existing orientals: the one is a barbarous race — mere hunters, without 
knowledge, arts, or letters; the other civilized, and possessing them. Something may, 
however, be inferred, from the theory announced, of the antiquity of thought and ideas. 

21. It has been seen, in the course of our discussion, that the Indians of America 
worship, with more truth and purity than has been found this side of the Indus, the 
Tigris and Euphrates, the being of a universal God, or Manito, who is called, in the 
North, the Great, Good, or Merciful Spirit. To his power they oppose an antago- 
nistical Great, Evil-minded Spirit, who is constantly seeking to destroy and overturn 
all good and benevolent measures. This evil power, or Matchi Manito , is represented 
or symbolized often by the Serpent; hence gifts and addresses are made to him by 
their Medas and Jossakeeds. They also offer oblations to him directly, as inhabiting 
the solid earth. They pour out drinks to him. Thus the ancient oriental notion of 
a dualistical deity is revealed. 

22. It has also been seen that they are worshippers of the elements, of fire, and 
the sun; and that hymns and offerings are made to the latter. It has been shown 
that their oral traditions contain abundant evidence of the idea of the metempsy¬ 
chosis, or transmigration of the soul through a wandering series of existences, human 
and brutal. These are certainly not American, but foreign and oriental ideas, and 
denote an oriental origin. 

23. If it be now inquired, Are the North American Indians, then, off-shoots of an 
oriental Indian stock, among whom these ideas once prevailed ? it is asked, What 
stock ? The Hindu religious practices and opinions of modern days, if we seek for 
comparison there, are very different from those prescribed by the Yidas, the most 
ancient authority. Changes have been introduced by the Puranas and other sacred 
books of comparatively modern date, so that there are some of their ancient gods 
which are utterly unknown to modern worshippers. 

24. The idea of caste is perfectly unknown to the North American Indian. He 
does not entertain, but repudiates the very thought of it. To him all races are 
“born equal.” The burning of widows at the funereal pile; the casting of bodies 
into any stream, like the Ganges, whose waters are believed to be sacred; these are 
ideas and practices equally unknown. The incineration of the bodies of the dead 
was not practised on this continent, even in the tropics, and is a rite unknown to the 
tribes of the United States. It is said to be practised in New Caledonia. 1 

25. The periodical offering of cakes, libations, flesh, or viands at the grave, to 
ancestors, or the Patras of the human race, which is stated to be a custom of the 
Hindus, is, however, seen to be an idea incorporated in the practice of the American, 
or at least the Algonic Indians. These Indians, believing in the duality of the soul, 
and that the soul sensorial abides for a time with the body in the grave, requiring 
food for its ghostly existence and journeyings, deposit meats and other aliment, at 


1 Harmon’s Travels. 









&pf S .Eastman, U..J3. Army del? Chromotith. of J. T- Bowen, Philad* 















39 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

and after the time of interment. This custom is universal, and was one of their 
earliest observed traits. 1 De Bry mentions a feast to fire, in 1588. 

26. Another custom, near akin to it, prevails. They offer pieces of flesh and 
viands, at meals and feasts, to their O-git-te-zeem-e-wug, or ancestors. (See Plate 3.) 
This duty seems to be obligatory on every Indian in good standing with his tribe, 
who has been, so to say, piously instructed by the Medas or his parents; and the 
consequence is, he fears to neglect it. Every feast, in fact, every meal at which 
there is some particularly savory or extra dish, brings prominently up this duty of 
a gift to the spirit of forefathers, or of those relatives in old times, or newly deceased, 
who have preceded them to the grave. The first idea that a grave, or burial-ground, 
or ad-je-dcts-tig 2 suggests to him, is the duty he owes as an honest man, expecting good 
luck in life, to his relatives, or O-git-te-zeem-e-wug. 

When an Indian falls into the fire, or is partially burned, it is a belief that the 
spirits of their ancestors have pushed him into the flames, owing to the neglect of 
these pious offerings. Sometimes it is a wife or child that is believed to be thus 
pushed. In passing a grave-yard or burial-place where the remains of his ancestors 
repose, the Indian is strongly reminded of this pious duty; and if he has any thing 
from which a meat or drink-offering can be made, his feelings make a strong appeal 
to him to perform it. 

An Algonquin, on a certain occasion, was passing at dusk through an extensive 
Indian burial-ground, where his O-git-te-zeem-e-wug lay. Believing that the dual soul 
abides with the body, his fancy pictured to him two of the “Patras” sitting between 
the graves. He had a kettle of whiskey in his hands. He felt that he could not 
part with this precious drink, by pouring out even a small libation. He grasped it 
the firmer, and hurried on, but cast back a furtive glance. One of the spirits was on 
his track. He hurried on, but his ghostly pursuer gained on him. He determined 
at once on his course; and letting the phantom come up close to him, he wheeled 
round on a sudden, and grasped him. He looked, and, lo ! he held in his arms, not 
his pursuer or ghostly patra, but a tall bunch of rushes. The spirit had vanished, 
and transformed himself to a plant in an instant. Such are the notions of the 
Algonquins, and, so far as known, the North American Indians generally. 

27. It is a species of idolatry laid to the charge of the Israelites, that while they 
were in the wilderness, they “ate the sacrifices of the dead.” (Psalms cvi. 28.) 
There is hardly a form of eastern idolatry herein alluded to, into which the Israelites 
had not, at one time or another, fallen; but the most common, widespread, and oft- 
recurring rite, was that of burning incense on high places to imaginary beings, or 
devils, under the delusive idea of their being gods; the very trait which is so striking 
in all our Indian tribes. 

28. If Hindostan can be regarded in truth as having contributed to our Indian 


1 Hackluyt’s Collection. 


3 Grave-post. 



40 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


stocks at all, it must have been at a very ancient epoch, before the Yidas were 
written; for it is asserted that the present customs of the Hindoos are corruptions 
of an elder system, and are in many things new, or traceable to those books. 1 

29. The probability of a Shemitic origin for at least the northern stocks, revives 
with the investigation of the principles of their languages. It is sought to place this 
study on a broader basis, by the accumulation of vocabularies and grammars from all 
the leading stocks. It is already perceived that the elder philologists employed 
fragmentary materials; that some of their generalizations were too hasty; and that 
there are no amalgamations of diverse principles of syntax, but, on the contrary, a 
remarkable oneness; that they are, in fact, rather una-synthetic than poly-synthetic; 
not “ agglutinated,” but accretive. 

30. It was early thought that the manners and customs of the tribes savored 
much of the Mongolic or Samoidean type. The tribes of the East Indies, who were 
in the mind’s eye of the early discoverers, embrace much of that generic type, both 
in their physical and moral character. Columbus himself thought so. 

On the discovery of the race, as represented by the Caribs of the West Indies, in 
1492, Columbus was so struck with the general resemblance of their physiological 
traits to those of the East Indians or Hindustanese, that he at once called them 
Indianos. All subsequent observers in that area have concurred generally with 
him in this respect. The red skin, the hazel and glazed eye, and coal-black hair, 
have continued to our day to be characteristics, even where the breadth of the cheek¬ 
bones, modified by artificial craniological pressure, and the varying stature, and 
effects of mere latitude and subsistence, fail. 

31. Such has also been the observation in North America. Ninety-two years after 
the discovery, that is, in 1584, when the first ships sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, 
under his commission from Queen Elizabeth, reached the Yirginia coasts, they landed 
among a generic family of the red men, differing in language wholly from the Caribs, 
but whose physical type was nevertheless essentially the same. The stock family 
found in Yirginia has since become very well known to us, under the generic cogno¬ 
men of Algonquins. Wherever examined, between the original landings at Occoquon 
and Roanoke, and the south capes of the St. Lawrence, they have revealed the same 
general physiology. They have reproduced themselves, in every age of our history, 
without change. The black, straight hair, the black, glassy eye, the coffin-shaped 
face, produced by prominent cheek-bones, and the peculiar varietetic red colour, and 
fine, soft, inodorous organization of the epidermis and skin, has been recognised as 
expressively Indian. Fulness or lankness of muscle, height or shortness of stature, 
and weakness or vigor of vitality, may be considered as the effects of peculiarities 
of food and climate. But the traits that preside over and give character to the 


1 Wilson. 



41 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

muscular mass, show themselves as clearly in the well-fed Osage and Dacotah, and 
the stately Algonquin, as in the fish and rabbit-fed Gens de Terre (Muskigo) on the 
confines of Canada, or the root-eating Shoshonee of the Rocky Mountains. 

32. There must be something permanent in the physical type of the man, which 
has produced itself, with such amazing constancy, through all our latitudes, torrid, 
tropical, temperate, and frigid. And the facts go nigh to prove that this type is 
more prominent and important, as indicative of faithfulness to organic laws of 
lineament, and minute corpuscular organization, than is generally supposed. 1 At 
least, the result of three and a half centuries does not, where the blood is unmixed, 
much favor the idea of a progressive physical development. 

33. Nor is there much to favor the idea of the organization of a new mental 
germ. The same indestructibility of type, the same non-progressiveness of the 
Indian oriental mind, is perceived in the race in every part of this continent. A 
new course of thought led Copernicus and Galileo to infer that the earth turned 
daily on its axis before the sun. It led Harvey to conclude that the blood circulates 
by an organic propulsion from the human heart. It led Jenner to believe that one 
species of virus may destroy the liability to take disease from a more violent natural 
effect of another and kindred species. There appears to be little or nothing of this 
kind of thought in the Indian mind of either continent. It appears to have no 
intellectual propulsion, no analytic tendencies. It reproduces the same ideas in 1850 
as in 1492. But if it has this want of originality, this want of a disposition to 
re-examine the truth of its former opinions or dogmas, is the assimilation to Asiatic 
arts and sciences strongly apparent? 

34. The ancient Persians had a calendar, consisting of twelve moons of thirty days 
each, giving them a year of three hundred and sixty days. They had a cycle of one 
hundred and twenty years, and allowed the fragmentary hours of each year to be 
heaped up before them, till the close of this cycle, when they added the accumulated 
days, to square their chronology. They believed, like the Hebrews and other oriental 
nations, that the sun passed every day around the earth. 


1 The great improvements in the microscope, which have been made within late years, have had the tendency 
to show the permanency of the physical type of man, by revealing the minute organization of animal tissue, 
bones, nails, flesh, hair, pores of the skin, &c. 

In a series of experiments devoted to the hair, made with this instrument, by Mr. Peter A. Browne, of 
Philadelphia, this gentleman has demonstrated three primary species of the hair and hairy tissue, or wool, of the 
human head, as shown by the researches respecting the Anglo-Saxon, Indian, and Negro races. These experi¬ 
ments, which appear to have been conducted with scientific and philosophical care, denote the structure and 
organization of each of these species to be peculiar. They are denominated, in the order above stated, cylindrical 
or round, oval, and eccentrically elliptical, or flat. The Indian hair employed in these experiments was the 
Choctaw. Inquiries are now on foot by this gentleman, if we err not, in connection with the Philadelphia 
Academy of Natural Sciences, to pursue these results. 

6 



42 


MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


According to Sir Stamford Raffles, Hindostan and Java had a market-day every 
fifth day. The Chinese had a cycle of sixty years. Doctor Morrison states, that the 
mode of the latter, in recording their chronology, consisted of two set of hieroglyphics, 
comprising what they denominate stems and branches. Their cycle was divided into 
sub-periods of ten stems, and each stem into twelve branches. The hieroglyphic 
denoting the stem being always different in the cycle, and that of the branches being 
the same for each relative day, their astronomers had the means of an exact chronology. 
They had a week of five days; every fifth' day being, like the Hindu system, market- 
day. Each day had a name, and each name a hieroglyphic, representing that object. 

35. Something of this kind was found, in the thought-work of the calendar of the 
Aztecs of Mexico. They had however a cycle of fifty-two years, founded manifestly 
in original ignorance of the true length of the year, and a wrong division of the 
months. They had four days, called respectively, Tochtli, Acatl, Techpatl, and Calli, 
or, a bird, a reed, a flint, and a house. The fifth day was a market-day. These 
names they repeated to thirteen. Thirteen days constituted a month, or trecena , as 
the Spaniards called it. A year consisted of twenty months, or two hundred and 
sixty days. All this was clearly the result of a superstitious astrology and wild 
mythology, in the hands of the priests and political leaders, who were the exclusive 
repositories of knowledge, and were leagued to acquire power over the people. It was 
early seen by them, by observing the planetary motions, that their astronomy was 
wrong. To correct it, and make it tally with the periods of the sun’s recessions, they 
added one hundred and five days to their year, making it, as we now see, correspond 
to the lunar year of the East. 

Each cycle was divided into four sub-periods of thirteen years, called Tlalpilli. To 
record time, each day had a dot, or date, before its symbol, indicating its number in 
the Tlalpilli, and a dot or date behind it, denoting the year of the cycie. By this 
simple contrivance, although the names of the days were often repeated, it was 
arithmetically impossible that the number of the Tlalpilli and of the cycle should 
coincide. The arrangements are denoted on the following table. 


TLALPILLI 1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 

CYCLE 52. 

1 Tochtli.. 

.. 1 

1 Acatl. 

. ..14 

1 Techpatl .. . 

....27 

1 Calli . . . 

.40 

2 Acatl. 

.. 2 

2 Techpatl . ... 

...15 

2 Calli. 

....28 

2 Tochtli.. 

.41 

3 Techpatl . 

... 3 

3 Calli . 

...16 

3 Tochtli. 

. ...29 

3 Acatl .. 

.42 

4 Calli. 

... 4 

4 Tochtli. 

...17 

4 Acatl . 

....30 

4 Techpatl 

.43 

5 Tochtli. 

... 5 

5 Acatl . 

...18 

5 Techpatl .. . 

....31 

5 Calli ... 

.44 

6 Acatl. 

..6 

6 Techpatl . ... 

...19 

6 Calli. 

....32 

6 Tochtli. . 


7 Techpatl . 

,.. 7 

7 Calli. 

...20 

7 Tochtli. 

....38 

7 Acatl .. 

.46 

8 Calli. 

... 8 

8 Tochtli. 

...21 

8 Acatl .. 

....34 

8 Techpatl 

.47 

9 Tochtli. 

.. 9 

9 Acatl. 

,...22 

9 Techpatl . . . 

....35 

9 Calli ... 

.48 

10 Acatl. 

...10 

10 Techpatl . .. , 

,...23 

10 Calli. 

....36 

10 Tochtli.. 

.49 

11 Techpatl . 

..11 

11 Calli. 

...24 

11 Tochtli .... 

....37 

11 Acatl ... 

.50 

12 Calli.. 

..12 

12 Tochtli. 

....25 

12 Acatl. 

.. ..38 

12 Techpatl 

.51 

13 Tochtli. 

. .13 , 

18 Acatl . 

....26 

13 Techpatl ... 

....39 

13 Calli ... 


























































MENTAL TYPE OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


43 


By this system, which is accurately observed in the map of Boturini, which we 
have inserted in a condensed form, (Plates 1 and 2,) it was easy to determine the 
time they employed in their migration down the Pacific coast, and into the interior. 
But their year was still inexact, which was noticed by observations of the priests; 
and in 1519, at the time the Spaniards arrived, they had corrected it to within two 
hours and thirty-nine minutes of the exact solar year. This was their greatest 
triumph. It appears evident, however, that their system of astronomy is of indigenous 
growth , and that, taking a few ideas of what had affected the memories of their 
ancestors, in the eastern hemisphere, as the market-day, and the double hieroglyphic 
system, it had been the accumulated result of patient observation, in the clear skies 
of Mexico. 


III. ANTIQUITIES. 


A. General archaeology. 

B. Antique skill in fortification. 

C. Erection of tumuli and altars. 

D. Evidences of ancient field cultivation. 

E. Antiquities of higher northern latitudes. 

F. Ancient state of arts and miscellaneous fabrics. 

G. Evidences of ancient mining. 

H. Ancient ossuaries. 

I. Archaeological evidences of the continent having been visited by a people of letters prior 

to the era of Columbus. 


A. GENERAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 

A. There is little in the history of the hunter state of man, that can be dignified 
with the name of monuments. Tribes, who rely on the how and arrow for their means 
of subsistence; who cultivate the earth by loosening the soil with the scapula of a stag 
or bison; who are completely erratic in their habits and customs; and who put up, as a 
shelter from the elements, buildings of the slightest and most perishable materials, cannot 
be expected to have left very extensive or striking monumental traces of their past his¬ 
tory. This will be found to be the case, in a peculiar manner, it is apprehended, with 
the antiquarian remains of the branch of the human race, who formerly inhabited the 
area of the United States. The most antique things in it, appear to be the people 
themselves. They are the greatest wonder that the continent has produced. 

These tribes roved through vast forests, in which they can hardly be said to have 
had a fixed occupancy. They were cut up into many petty independencies, perpetually 
at war with each other, who did not remain stationary long enough to organize govern¬ 
ments capable of commanding labor on public works. To waylay an enemy; to shake 
his scalp in the air; to follow the tracks of a deer or a bear; to brandish the war-club 
in the dance; — these were esteemed greater achievements among them, than to erect 

(44) 


ANTIQUITIES. 


45 


a column, or inscribe a shaft. We are only surprised that they should have left 
anything, in the line of antiquities, but the small and naked fields which they tilled. 

Yet, it is found that some combined efforts for defence, and the deep-seated principles 
of a native religion, however erroneous, have scattered throughout the land evidences 
of such combinations and idolatrous worship, in a species of tumuli and military ditches 
and encampments, which attest the possession of considerable power. It is true, that 
these archaeological data appear to have been accurately suited to the apparent condition 
of the tribes, and not to have transcended it. Where an anomalous ruin, or work of 
art, occurs, which implies a greater degree of civilization, it is safer to consider it as 
intrusive, or as belonging to a different era, than to attempt to disturb or unsettle the 
general theory of the hunter period. Time, and the hand of decay and obscuration, 
are powerful aids to the mystery of antiquity in all lands; but they are especially to 
be guarded against, in examining the ruins of a barbarian people. Such a people do 
some things exquisitely well; they manufacture arms and implements with exact and 
beautiful adaptation to the arts of war and the chase; but the proficiency wholly fails, 
when we come to examine buildings, sculptures, and like works. A savage may do 
his part well, in the building of a mound of earth, which is the joint work of a whole 
village, and is to serve as its place of worship or sacrifice. He may labor as one of a 
hundred hands, in excavating a ditch, or erecting a parapet for sustaining rude picket 
work, to shield a community of women from the attacks of clubs or arrows. But it 
is in vain to look for the traces of an equal degree of labor in erecting his own dwelling. 
The hunter state required mounds and temples, but no permanent private residences. 

The belief in a theory of a high degree of civilization in the area of fierce hunter 
tribes, such as extended north of the Rio Grande, reaching to the Great Lakes, in any 
age of which there is reliable knowledge, is indeed calculated to reflect but little credit 
on American archaeological philosophy. Admitting, what is probable, that there were, 
in the course of ages, elements of the peculiar civilization of Lybia, Phoenicia, Ireland, 
Scandinavia, and Ancient Britain, and Spain, from mariners or adventurers, either 
accidentally or designedly landed on the coasts, there is no probability that the 
number, at any one period prior to the discovery by Columbus, was considerable; and 
it is nearly certain, that such adventurers or castaways were nearly, if not quite, without 
females. In either view, they must have relied upon the native female for any period 
of continuance; and as she would reproduce resemblances of her own physical type, 
these elements of disturbance or intrusive knowledge would, in a few generations, 
entirely disappear, if the intrusive men were not violently despatched, like the first 
English colony in Virginia, or the crew of the stranded vessel spoken of by Iroquois 
tradition. We should closely inspect our antiquities for these casual evidences of foreign 
art; and not too hastily attribute an advanced civilization to wandering tribes of 
hunters and warriors, who stood in no other relation to them than that of conquerors 
or murderers. 


46 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Even in Mexico, where one of these foreign elements was probably at the bottom 
of their civilization, as testified by Montezuma to Cortez, there was a predisposition 
on the part of the Spaniards to overrate the native arts and knowledge. Cortez was, 
in the outset, but a rebel to legal authority at Cuba, and, afterwards, both he and his 
followers were prone to magnify the type of civilization of the Aztecs in order to 
enhance the glory of the conquest. A loud stroke of the Indian drum was the sound 
of a “ gong” in the ears of Bernal Dias; a folded skin with devices in the Indian 
manner, seen at Zempoala, was a “ book.” This disposition to over-estimate is every¬ 
where observable in the Spanish narratives of a semi-civilized people, who had really 
much to commend, and many arts that called for astonishment. 

But when the eye, about one century later, (say A. D. 1600,) fell upon the small 
and erratic bands of foresters who were seated along the North Atlantic, from Florida 
to the St. Lawrence, there was very little to break the wild and cheerless view of 
barbarity which their manners and customs presented. They were exclusively 
hunters and fishermen. The little zea maize that they raised to eke out a precarious 
existence, was a cultivation exclusively in the hands of the females. A coarse kind 
of pottery in common use was also a feminine art. 1 Their dwellings of mats and bark 
and poles were alike due to feminine industry. There was, in reality, no male civili¬ 
zation, unless it be found in the art of fabricating weapons and implements; in the 
mnemonic art of recording events in the pictographic characters of the Kelcewin, and 
in the state of their numeration, as shown in their exchanges of wrought sea-shells, 
which had some of the properties of a coin. 

In all that related to energy, courage, and expertness; to war and eloquence; to 
endurance as-captives; and to the leading traits of a wild and unshackled indepen¬ 
dence, they were immeasurably superior to the Aztecs. 

When the Anglo-Saxon race began, late in the seventeenth century, to cross the 
Alleghanies, and to explore the valley of the Mississippi, the forest was observed to 
have encroached upon, and buried, a class of ruins in the shape of tumuli, barrows, 
abandoned fields, and military earth-works. These relics, of the origin of which the 
tribes knew nothing, have continued to be the theme of philosophical speculation to 
the present day. 

New discoveries are making every year, as fresh areas of that magnificent valley 
yield to the hand of agriculture, and the record of its antiquities is thus becoming 
fuller, and more complete. 

It is, perhaps, premature to generalize on the present state of our archaeological 
materials, but something may be done to throw the facts into groups in which they 
can be more perfectly examined and studied; and little more will be attempted in 
the present paper. 


1 De Bry, 1590. 



B. ANCIENT SKILL IN FORTIFICATION. 


The area which is embraced by works of this kind is very large: west of the Alle- 
ghanies it embraces the greater portion of the entire Mississippi valley, extending to 
Minnesota and the banks of many of its confluent streams. The valley of the Ohio 
appears to have been a favorite field of ancient occupancy. Its fertile soil; its mild 
climate; its varied resources; and its picturesque character and beauties, appear to 
have been as well appreciated and understood by its ancient as its present inhabitants. 
That its possession was coveted, that it was long cherished, and perhaps often fought 
for, is indicated by the large number of mounds and field-works, of various character, 
which have been disclosed by its modern settlement. The Yalley of the Scioto 
appears, in particular, to have sustained a heavy ancient population, who left their 
altars, tumuli, and places of strong defence to attest a power and strength which, we 
cannot hesitate to say, made Chillicothe its central capital. Whoever examines the 
full and accurate descriptions which have been given of its varied earth-works by Dr. 
E. H. Davis, assisted by Mr. Squier, and published in the first volume of the Smith¬ 
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, must feel impressed either with the very ancient 
date of these remains, or with the great populousness of its fertile plains. Other 
parts of this stream, as at Marietta, Gallipolis, the Great Miami, and numerous minor 
sites, attest, by their monumental remains, the residence and reign of tribes having 
considerable power. 

The long and fertile area of the American bottom opposite St. Louis appears to have 
been another central seat of this occupancy; and the relative positions of the Monk 
mound, and its satellite mounds, furnish, in some respects, a strong coincidence with 
the astronomical and astrological structures of the Toltecan race. 

In Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and along the borders of the lower Mississippi, 
the number of works of defence, and the strong idolatrous character of the ancient 
inhabitants, are denoted by other remains, which are seen to have covered large areas 
of-the most valuable and fertile portions of those states. Dr. Troost and Dr. Dicken¬ 
son have exposed peculiar classes of facts. 

These archaeological vestiges extend eastwardly, and then north-eastwardly from 
Mississippi and Louisiana, through Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, quite to South 
Carolina, where a work of this kind exists on the estate of the late Hon. John C. 
Calhoun, which is called Fort Hill. The Tuscaroras of North Carolina, in 1712, built 
a fort to defend themselves against the colonists under Colonel Moore, but it was not 
found efficient against field-guns, and they were obliged to make an unconditional 
surrender. 


(47) 


48 


ANTIQUITIES. 


It is not known that the small tribes of the Northern Atlantic fortified against an 
enemy, at least, that they erected any works of much or permanent importance, 
corresponding to those in the West. 

Works of this character again appear in Western New York, in the ancient 
territories of the Iroquois, extending as far south as Auburn: they are seen on the 
highest and eldest ridge of land, extending through Erie and Chautauque counties 
to the portages of the Alleghany river. It is not apparent that all these works are 
of the same strong military character, and required as many hands to defend them, as 
the prime fortifications of the West; but they embrace the same principles, so far as 
they are carried out, and the sepulchral and general remains indicate the same era. 

There is one feature, in which the works found in the West all agree. They evince 
a strong natural capacity for defence. They cover the highest points of land, and 
are so placed as to command its approaches. The form and size of the work to be 
adopted, was immaterial whenever a hill-top or plateau was occupied. It was walled 
or ditched in, according to its geological outlines. The principle of the bastion was 
secured by any heights or lands which commanded a length of wall or picketing. 
Traverses, generally resembling a segment of a circle, were drawn in front of the 
gates, sally-ports, or openings. Small hay-cock mounds were, in other situations, 
erected to rake with missiles these entrances. The entrances themselves were 
sometimes of an oval or zig-zag form. Difficulties of ingress, and facilities of issue, 
of a hand to hand force, were created by curved, or parallel lines, or by gaps, 
suitably defended. 

Examples of each of these principles of the ancient fortification, as it exists in the 
Mississippi Valley, are given in the Smithsonian volume No. 1, to which we have 
alluded. They will be found described in the works at Bournville, (Plate IV. page 
11), at Fort Hill, (Plate V. page 14), at Hamilton, Butler County, Ohio, (Plate VI. 
page 16), where the TlcLscalan gateway is exemplified. On the Little Miami, (Plate 
VII. page 18), on the Great Miami, (Plate VIII. 1. 2. 3.) In Licking County, Ohio, 
(Plate IX. 1. 3. page 24), on Point Creek, (Plate X. page 26.) And by the accurate 
surveys depicted in Plates XI. to XV., respectively. These plates and descriptions 
secure the requisite degree of scientific accuracy. 

The different modes in which a gateway or sally-port is covered, in these antique 
works,by traverses and mounds, is denoted by the following Plate, No. 4., Fig. 1. 2. 
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 


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C. THE ERECTION OF TUMULI, OR ALTARS OF 

SACRIFICE. 


I. Tumuli Proper. 

II. Redoubt Mounds. 

III. Barrows. 

IV. Minor Altars of Sacrifice. 

V. Totemic Mounds. 

1. It has been perceived by a part of the preceding observations, that the Indian 
theology recognises deities of Good and Evil, to one or both of whom they offer 
sacrifices. These sacrifices, when they are made to propitiate the deity, or avert a 
calamity, as sickness in the family , which is one of the most common and general 
modes of affliction in which an Indian’s heart is melted into sympathy, — these 
sacrifices, I remark, in such cases often consist of some cherished object in the 
animate or inanimate creation, hung up at the lodge door, on a high peeled pole, and 
exposed thus to dangle in the air. Scarlet cloth, which is a favorite color; ribbons, 
which are bought at a high price; the wings of a bird, or, when the appeal is 
strong, a small dog, which has first been devoted to the sacrificial knife, are thus 
offered. 

Other, and more general objects of request, calamities to be avoided, or luck to be 
secured, are expressed by some cherished thing, such as a piece of tobacco, which is 
deemed a sacred plant, thrown into the water or fire, or left upon a rock. Still 
another mode of making an acceptable offering, is by the incense of tobacco, burned 
in the pipe, the fumes of which, as they rise and mingle with the air, where gods and 
spirits are thought to dwell, is considered one of the most acceptable of sacrifices. 
When such offerings are made, the weed has been lighted from fire newly obtained 
from the flint, and not from common fire ; and the offering is always made with some 
genuflections. 

These simple acts of adoration are, perhaps, generally made under the supervision 
of the medas, priests, or other religious functionaries, or by chiefs or leaders, who unite 
the civil and what we may call the sacerdotal powers. There is certainly, in each of 
our United States tribes, a class of men called, in some of the languages, Medas, 
Jossakeeds, Wabenos, and Muskiki w’ininees, or doctors, who affect to have more 
knowledge of occult and mysterious things than the rest, and are found to put them¬ 
selves forward as prophets or seers. It is generally on their omens, deductions, or 
predictions that the decisions and actions, public and private, of the entire nation rest. 
‘Thus the political power, in an Indian tribe, is in fact founded on the religious 
7 (49) 


50 


ANTIQUITIES. 


element; and as the latter is false, we should not wonder that the former proves 
fallacious, and so often leads their councils astray. 

These simple modes of adoration and worship are conformable with the means of all 
our United States tribes, wherever they may chance to be, in the forest or on the 
plains. The tribes themselves are not fixed, in their locations, to one spot all the 
year round; and neither the possessors of the chieftainship, nor the simple priesthood, 
have power or means, if they were inclined to use them, to induce or compel labor on 
fixed places of worship. The deepest recesses of the forest — those features in the 
earth’s surface which are suited to excite the liveliest feelings of awe, as pinnacles and 
cataracts, are indeed their chosen places of offering and worship. These natural 
features are, indeed, most emphatically, “ temples not made with hands.” They will 
often, indeed, set up a water-worn boulder on the shores of a lake or river, or in the 
waste of the boundless prairies, and perhaps tip it, if they have paints at hand, with 
some resemblances to a person. But as they have, with some few exceptions, no 
visible idols, carved out of wood or stone, and no tangible objects whatever, out of 
the arcanum of the medicine sack, or Gush-keep-e-tau-gun, which embody the idea of 
idolatry, their adorations and offerings of every kind, to which allusion has now been 
made, have been deemed remarkable in a savage race, and led to many misgivings, in 
every age of our history, whether they are not the remote descendants of a race of 
mankind who had once been acquainted with the true God. This is not the place to 
examine that question. We are speaking of facts as they exist, and the state of 
mysterious observances of an erratic people, inhabitants of woods and wilds, who still 
flank our western settlements. 

Such does not, however, appear to have been the character, condition, and, at least, 
the civil type of a part of the people who have, in some former and unknown age of 
the continent, erected the mounds of the Mississippi Valley. That people, whatever 
was the type of their barbarity, or departure from it, had become in a great measure 
fixed in their residences. They raised the zea maize, we have every reason to believe, 
in larger quantities than any of the existing forest tribes. They appear also, if we are 
not mistaken, to have cultivated a species of bean and vine, as the antique garden- 
beds, existing in extensive areas in Indiana and southern Michigan, appear to denote. 
This enabled them to congregate in large towns and villages, such as were evidently 
seated in the Scioto Valley and at the mouth of the Muskingum; and they could 
employ themselves on more fixed and formal plans of worship. Their knowledge of 
architecture in wood and stone was quite rude. They were acquainted with no 
metal but copper. They formed chisels and axes and ornaments of that metal. 
They carved sea-shells. They had not reached to the degree of knowledge of the 
Toltecs and Aztecs, which led a whole village to live in one large stone edifice (vide 
reports of Fremont, Emory, Abert, and Cook), that frequently had a hundred rooms, 
which, by building the first story solid, and raising the second on a platform, to be 


ANTIQUITIES. 


51 


reached by hand-ladders, nocturnally withdrawn, converted literally their houses into 
castles. But they constructed, in the United States, mounds of earth, now covered 
with grass, designed for publio occasions, especially of defence and worship, which 
have resisted the action of the elements for ages, and, if not mutilated by the spade 
and plough, will stand as long as the pyramids of Cholulu and Gizeh. 

They appear to have cultivated public fields, situated in the plains or valleys, near 
some fortified hill, where the whole mass of the population could nightly, or as danger 
threatened, resort. The very great area of ground, covered by defences in many 
places, is a strong reason for supposing that the military work itself was a town or 
village, where the women and children were under permanent protection. In the 
wide area of these fortified towns, they could erect their dwellings, which were probably 
of wood, and therefore perishable, and have left no trace. The military force of such 
a “ fenced city ” or town, was more effective, as many of the females could be employed 
in carrying arrows, and other light work. There were no bombs, as nowadays, to fall 
over an enclosure; the great struggle was always at the gates; which were maintained 
in a desperate hand to hand struggle with darts and clubs, as we have indicated in 
Plate 4, on the plan of the antique fortifications. 

The larger mounds, which were the places of offerings and sacrifices, and of the 
singing of hymns, were without the works. These, it is most probable, were only 
approached by the priests, before or after the conflict ; and were the sites of public 
supplications, and public te deums. It was no desecration of the object to which the 
large tumuli were dedicated, to employ them as sepulchres for their celebrated men; 
but rather served to invest them with the character of increased sacredness and 
respect. 

2 & 3. The minor mounds, such as we have denominated haycock mounds, appear 
to have been seated inside or outside of a defended town or fort, of a military character, 
and were a sort of redoubt. When seated at places distant from such works, they 
were generally mere barrows. 

4. But there is a third species of the class of minor mounds, which were evidently 
of an altaric character. This appears to have been first shown by Dr. Davis, in his 
elaborate examination of the antiquities of the Scioto Yalley. That offerings were 
made by fire by the mound-builders, as well as by the existing race of Indians, is 
clearly shown. An altar of earth, not very imposing in its height or circumference, 
was made by them from loose earth, in which two simple principles were observed; 
namely, that of the altar and pyramid. It was circular, that all could approach and 
stand around it; and second, that it should have concavity enough at top, to prevent 
the fire from tumbling off. Here the people could freely make their offerings to the 
officiating jossakeeds, which appear to have consisted most commonly of the pipe in 
which incense had been offered, and which was probably, from its ordinary and extrar 
ordinary uses, one of the most cherished objects in the household. It is probable, from 


52 


ANTIQUITIES. 


the number of these altars in the Scioto Valley, that it had a dense population in it; 
and there was, not improbably, a choice in the priest or officiating powwow, the result 
of personal popularity, as we see in public men at the present day. 

By long use, the bed of the loam or earth composing the altar would become hard, 
and partake, in some measure, of the character of brick. What circumstances deter¬ 
mined its disuse, we cannot say. It is certain, that in the end the fire was covered 
up, with all its more or less burned and cracked contents, and the earth heaped up, so 
as to bury it most effectually, and constitute a mound. This peculiar formation, as 
Dr. Davis informed me, was first exposed by the action of the river, which undermined 
one or more of these structures, exposing the baked red line of earth, of a convex 
form, which had made the -former bed of the altar, and upon which vast numbers of 
sculptured pipes were found. These pipes have been figured in the first volume of 
the Smithsonian Transactions, and constitute a body of the best sculptures, although 
not the only ones of a similar character, for their artistic skill, which have yet come 
to light. It is found that the purposes of exchange, perhaps, have carried them north 
to the lakes, and east to some parts of the country formerly occupied by the Eries, the 
Iroquois, and the Mississagies. 

The accompanying Plate (No. 5, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) exhibits, in a series, 
the base and circumference of the principal mounds existing in the West and South, 
and a diagram of their relative elevation. 

5. It remains only to speak of one class of mounds, which differ wholly in their 
object and mode of construction, as well, probably, as their era of erection, from all 
the preceding species. Allusion is made to what have been called the imitative and 
Wisconsin mounds. Mr. David Dale Owen has figured several of them with great 
exactitude, in his report of the survey of the public lands, made to the General Land 
Office in 1839, but they had before attracted attention, and an account of some portion 
of them with drawings, was published in Silliman’s Journal of Science. 

These mounds, or monuments of earth, consist of the figures of animals, raised on 
the surface of the open country, and covered with grass. None of them exceed ten 
feet in height, although many of them include considerable areas. Their connection 
with the existing Totemic system of the Indians who are yet on the field of action, is 
too strong to escape attention. By the system of names imposed upon the men com¬ 
posing the Algonquin, Iroquois, Cherokee, and other nations, a fox, a bear, a turtle, 
&c., is fixed on as a badge or stem from which the descendants may trace their 
parentage. To do this, the figure of the animal is employed as an heraldic sign or 
surname. This sign, which by no means gives the individual name of the person, is 
called in the Algonquin, town-mark, or Totem. 1 

A tribe could leave no more permanent trace of an esteemed sachem or honored 


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ANTIQUITIES. 58 

individual, than by the erection of one of these monuments. They are clearly sepul¬ 
chral, and have no other object, but to preserve the names of distinguished actors in 
their history. The Fox, the Beak, the Wolf, and Eagle, are clearly recognizable in 
the devices published. 

Tradition would drop such a custom in two or three centuries, if the same tribe 
had not continued to live in the same area. But, in reality, the tribes who occupied 
Wisconsin, say in the year 1800, had not occupied it from the earliest known ages. 
The Winnebagoes still occupied the shores of Green Bay, on the arrival of the French. 
Immediately south of them were seated a nation which is now unknown, under the 
name of Mascotins, or Prairie Indians. The Sacs and Foxes were still in Lower 
Michigan. The probability of their more recent origin, than the mounds proper, rests 
on this; but it is admitted that there are no traditions respecting them. 


D. EVIDENCES OF A FIXED CULTIVATION AT AN 
ANTIQUE PERIOD. 


I. Prairie-fields. 

II. Remains of antique Garden-beds. 

III. Influence of the Cultivation of tbe Zea Maize. 

IV. Antiquities of the higher northern latitudes of the United States. 

I. Prairie-Fields. 

What proportion of the prairies of the West may be assigned as falling under the 
inference of having been abandoned fields, may constitute a subject of general specula¬ 
tion. It appears to be clear that the great area of the prairies proper is independent 
of that cause. Fire is the evident cause of the denudation of trees and shrubs in a 
large part of the area between the Rocky and the Alleghany mountains. Water comes 
in for a share of the denudation in valleys and moist prairies, which may be supposed 
to be the result of a more recent emergence from its former influence. But there is a 
third and limited class of prairies, or openings, in the forest regions which may well 
be examined with a view to this question. Portions of the western valleys are clearly 
referable to this class. 

We submit evidences of such former cultivation in a paper on the antique garden 
beds, as they have been called, in Indiana and Michigan, and some remarks on the 
origin and extent of the cultivation of the zea maize, as drawn from the Indian 
traditions. 

II. Remains of antique Garden-Beds, and extensive Fields 
of Horticultural Labour, in the primitive Prairies of 
the West. 

The history of man, in his state of dispersion over the globe, is little more than a 
succession of advances and declensions, producing altered types of barbarism and 
civilization. In what particular grade of either of these types the Indian race were, 
on reaching the shores of this continent, is unknown, or to be judged of, chiefly, by 
their monuments and remains of ancient art and industry. That they, like most of 
the great Shemitic stock who peopled Asia, had undergone great transitions, rising and 
falling in the scale of comparative civilization, as they developed themselves in the 
vast, and, as to their origin, indefinite area of land and ocean stretching between the 
banks of the Euphrates and the Mississippi, is apparent. They were found, at the 
discovery of America, as hunters. 


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ANTIQUITIES. 


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With what actual state of knowledge they had reached this continent, or if as 
nomades or hunters, to what height of civilization any part of them had attained after 
reaching it, and before the discovery, are questions which would hardly have been 
asked with respect to tribes in the northern latitudes, had it not been for the mounds, 
earth-works, and other monumental vestiges, overgrown with forest, which were found 
on the settlement of the Mississippi Valley. Every disclosure in our antiquities which 
tends to shed light on this subject is important; and it is under this view that I submit 
the accompanying drawings (Plates 6 and 7) of some curious antique garden-beds, or 
traces of ancient field-husbandry, which appear to denote an ancient period of fixed 
agriculture in the prairie regions of the West. These vestiges of a state of industry 
which is far beyond any that is known to have existed among the ancestors of the 
present Indian tribes, exist chiefly, so far as is known, in the south-western parts of 
Michigan, and the adjoining districts of Indiana. They extend, so far as observed, 
over the level and fertile prairie-lands for about one hundred and fifty miles, ranging 
from the source of the Wabash, and of the west branch of the Miami of the Lakes, to 
the valleys of the St. Joseph’s, the Kalamazoo, and the Grand River of Michigan. 
The Indians represent them to extend from the latter point, up the peninsula north to 
the vicinity of Michillimackinac. They are of various sizes, covering, generally, from 
twenty to one hundred acres. Some of them are reported to embrace even three 
hundred acres. As a general fact, they exist in the richest soil, as it is found in the 
prairies and burr oak plains. In the latter case, trees of the largest kind are scattered 
over them, but, in the greater number of cases, the preservation of their outlines is due 
to the prairie-grass, which forms a compact sod over them as firm and lasting as if they 
were impressed in rock; indeed, it is believed by those who have examined the grass 
which has preserved the western mounds and earth-works, that the compact prairie 
sod which covers them is more permanent in its qualities than even the firmest 
sandstones and limestones of the West, the latter of which are known to crumble and 
waste, with a marked rapidity, under the combined influence of rain, frost, and other 
atmospheric phenomena of the climate. As evidence of this, it is asserted that the 
numerous mounds, embankments, and other forms of western antiquities, are as perfect 
at this day, where they have not been disturbed by the plough or excavations, as they 
were on the earliest discovery of the country. 

The annexed drawings (Plates 6 & 7) exhibit plats and sections of these antique 
beds, from the Grand River and St. Joseph Yalleys, of Michigan. They were taken 
from undisturbed parts of the mixed forests and prairie lands near those primary 
streams. Those from Grand River, were taken near Thomas Station, in 1827; those 
from the St. Josephs, from a point near the village of Three Rivers, in 1837. They 
certainly offer new and unique traits in our antiquities, denoting a species of cultivation 
in elder times of an unusual kind, but which has been abandoned for centuries. They 
are called “ garden beds,” in common parlance, from the difficulty of assimilating them 


56 


ANTIQUI TIES. 


to anything else; though it would be more proper, perhaps, to consider them as the 
vestiges of ancient field labor. The areas are too large to admit the assumption of 
their being required for the purposes of ordinary horticulture. Plats of land so exten¬ 
sive as some of these were, laid out for mere gardens or pleasure-grounds, would 
presuppose the existence, at the unknown period of their cultivation, of buildings and 
satrapies, or chieftaindoms of arbitrary authority over the masses, of which there is 
no other evidence. The other antiquarian proofs of the region are, indeed, of the 
simplest and least imposing kind; not embracing large mounds, or the remains of 
field fortifications—unless we are to consider these horticultural labors of the table- 
prairie lands as having existed cotemporaneously with, and as appendant settlements 
of, the principal ancient defenced towns and strong-holds of the Ohio Valley. 

The principal points of inquiry are, by whom and at what period were these beds 
constructed and tilled, and whether by the ancestors of the existing race of Indians, 
by their predecessors, or by a people possessing a higher degree of fixed civilization ? 
In most of the other antiquarian earth-works, or remains of human labors of the west, 
we observe no greater degree of art or skill than may be daily attributed to hunter 
races, who are infringed upon by neighboring tribes, and combine for the purpose of 
defence against hand-to-hand missiles, such as hill-tops surrounded with earthen walls 
and palisades. But there is, in these enigmatical plats of variously -shaped beds, 
generally consisting of rows, evidence of an amount of fixed industry applied to agricul¬ 
ture, which is entirely opposed to the theory that the laborers were nomades, or hunters. 

So far as my knowledge extends, the area of country marked by these evidences of 
a horticultural population, covers the tract from the head waters of the Wabash 
and the Miami of the Lakes, to the eastern shores of Lake Michigan. Similar beds 
are said to extend elsewhere. The beds are of various sizes. Nearly all the lines of 
each area or sub-area of beds, are rectangular and parallel. Others admit of half¬ 
circles, and variously curved beds with avenues, and are differently grouped and disposed. 
The mode of formation indicates two species of culture. The first consists of convex 
rows, whose arches spring from the same bases in opposite directions, — as seen in 
Figures 1 and 4, Plate 6. 

In the other kind, the bases of the convex rows are separated by a path, or plain, 
as shown in figures 2 and 3, Plate 6. 

Both the plain and the convex beds are uniformly of the same width. If the 
space between the beds is to be viewed as a path, from which to weed or cultivate 
the convex bed, the idea is opposed by the comparative waste of land denoted by a 
perfect equality of width in the beds and paths. Besides, there are no such paths in 
the larger masses of rows, which are wholly convex, but are bounded by avenues or 
paths at considerable distances. The principal species of culture resembling this 
arrangement of beds, in modern horticulture, consists of beans, potatoes, and rice; 
that of celery requires, not a path separating the ridges, but a ditch. Indian corn 


ANTIQUITIES. 


may have been cultivated in rows. The former and the present mode, as far as we 
know, was in hills. These antique corn-hills were usually large. They were, as the 

Iroquois informed me in 1845, three or four times the diameter of the modern hills;_ 

a size which resulted from the want of a plough. In consequence of this want, 
the same hill was mellowed by the scapula or substitute for a hoe, or instrument used 
for planting, during a succession of years. Thus the corn-hill became large and distinct, 
and m fact a hillock. This is an explanation, given me while viewing the ancient 
corn-fields, near the Oneida stone, 1 which are now overgrown with forest trees. 

These ancient garden-beds of the West may have derived their permanency from 
the same want of agricultural implements and of horses and cattle to plough the land, 
and from the practice of reforming and replanting them by hand, in the Indian 
manner, year after year. In this manner, we may account for one of their most 
surprising traits, namely, their capacity to have resisted both the action of the 
elements and the disturbing force of the power of vegetation. 2 

Rev. Isaac M’Coy cut down, in 1827, an oak tree, on one of the beds (figured hi 
Plate 6, Fig. 2), which measured thirty-eight inches in diameter, at the height of 
twenty-six inches above the ground, and which denoted three hundred and twenty-five 
cortical layers. This would, agreeably to admitted principles in the progress of 
vegetation, give A. D. 1502, as the date of the first annual circle, or cortical ring 
deposited, by the tree. The continent was discovered ten years before this assumed 
date. Cabot ran down the north Atlantic coast, it is true, five years later, but did 
not land. Cartier first entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1584. But he left no 
man in the country, during that or the next year, when he ascended the river; and 
the Indians of whom he inquired respecting the sources of the St. Lawrence, told him 
that these sources were very remote, that the waters expanded into several large 
lakes, and that no man had been heard of, who had ever gone to their source. Quebec 
was founded in 1625. 3 Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colony to Virginia in 1584, 
although a colony was not permanently settled till 1610. The Holland States 
began their first exploratory efforts under Hudson, in the present area of New York, 
in 1609. Historians have fixed on 1608, as the date of the first effort of the French 
to colonize Canada. The English Pilgrim Fathers, from Holland, followed the track of 
Hudson, in 1620, intending, it appears, to enter the great river he had discovered, but 
landed at Plymouth. 4 From none of these sources could an agricultural population, 
whose labors appear to have terminated in Indiana and Michigan about 1500, have 
probably proceeded. 

1 This stone, which I visited in 1845, is a boulder of syenite —one of the erratic block group. 

2 This force is far less in the temperate latitudes than under the equinoxes, where Mr. Stephens represents 
it as displacing stones in a wall. 

8 This was eleven years after the budding of Fort Orange, at the present site of Albany, N. Y. 

4 Foreign Historical Documents, State Department, Albany, N. Y. 

8 




58 


ANTIQUITIES. 


The Spanish element of early American population is equally inadequate, chronolo¬ 
gically, to have furnished an off-shoot of population for labors prior to, or near the 
assumed date of these industrial monuments. Although Yespucio discovered the coast 
of Paria in 1497, and the extended shores of Brazil and Paraguay in 1503, he landed 
not a soul on either coast. It was not till 1512 that De Leon discovered Florida. 
Orijaba first landed on the gulf coasts of Mexico in 1518. Cortez followed him in 
1519. The mouth of the Mississippi was passed, in the coast explorations of the gulf, 
in 1527, late in the autumn; but it was not till 1539 that De Soto penetrated Florida, 
and reached an interior point on the Mississippi. All this while, we are to suppose, 
on the foreign hypothesis of the origin of these beds, that the horticultural and agricul¬ 
tural labors of the natives of Indiana and south-western Michigan, the vestiges of 
which are herein noticed, were carried on by a population which, according to one 
authority, 1 equalled that of Indiana at the period of the observation. Let it be borne 
in mind, at the same time, that the French from Canada did not penetrate the area of 
the great Lakes till 1632, when Sagard reached Lake Huron; nor go into upper 
Louisiana till 1673, when Marquette entered the Mississippi, at the mouth of the 
Wisconsin; that La Salle did not visit Illinois till 1678; that the settlement at Bolixi, 
on the Gulf, was not made till 1699; that Detroit was not founded till 1701, and New 
Orleans not till 1717. With these data in the mind, the idea of these antique agricul¬ 
tural labors being attributable to either of these modern elements of western population, 
will appear as quite untenable. Besides, both the Spanish and French population, 
when they first appeared at remote interior points west of the Alleghanies, did not 
come to undertake agricultural labors at those unsustained interior points, far less to 
plant extensive gardens and pleasure-grounds, like those whose vestiges we see in the 
valleys of the Grand River, Kalamazoo, and Elkheart. De Leon, Cortez, and De Soto 
came to seek new elements of commerce and trade, and to find treasures in the untilled 
portions of the continent, in its gold and silver, furs and dye-woods, medicinal plants, 
and other spontaneous productions of the American forests. Agriculture became only 
an incident in these schemes for discovery and conquest; and was merely resorted to, in 
the end, to sustain life, and not as furnishing articles of export. But what should 
induce foreigners to undertake labor on the remote interior table-lands of Indiana and 
Michigan ? Furs and the fur-trade were the only leading source of easy commerce 
there, and this was not introduced till the first quarter of the sixteenth century. 

We are compelled to look to an earlier period for the origin of these agricultural 
vestiges. It is more probable that they are the results of early cultivation, in some 
of the leading and more advanced indigenous races who possessed those midland 
regions between the Mississippi and the Lakes. It was a region which formerly 
abounded in game of various sorts; and while a part of the season was employed in 


Vide letter of Mr. M'Coy. 



ANTIQUITIES. 


59 


hunting, a heavy population, such as the vestiges denote, provided breadstuff’s by the 
culture of corn, beans, pulse, and various esculent roots, which are known to flourish 
in these latitudes. 

That this people were not advanced beyond the state of semi-agriculturalists appears 
probable, from the want of any remaining evidences in architecture or temple-worship, 
such as marked the Mexican and Peruvian races ; for, beyond the occurrence of mounds 
of the minor class, or small tumuli, there are no evidences of their attainment as 
constructors or builders. The garden-beds, and not the mounds, form, indeed, the 
most prominent, and by far the most striking and characteristic antiquarian monuments 
of this district of country. There would seem to have been some connection between 
these beds and the peculiar class of low imitative mounds, in the form of animals , 
which mark a very considerable area of the opposite side of Lake Michigan. 

Lake Michigan is, indeed, remarkable for its protrusion from north to south, for its 
entire length, into the prairie regions of Indiana and Illinois. It occupies, in truth, 
a summit; and while its outlet is into Lake Huron north, and thus by the lake chain 
and the St. Lawrence into the north Atlantic, the Illinois runs south from its imme¬ 
diate head, and finds the ocean in the Gulf of Mexico. The ancient garden-beds, and 
the animal-shaped mounds, the latter of which may be supposed to have been erected 
to perpetuate the memory of great hunters, who bore the names of the animals 
imitated, occupy the same latitudes. They constitute some of the best corn latitudes of 
Michigan and Wisconsin. It is to be borne in mind that the waters of Lake Michigan 
alone separate these two classes of remains, and that the northern tribes, who are bold 
and expert canoe-men, find no difficulty in crossing from shore to shore in the calm 
summer months. 

The French found the eastern and southern shores of Lake Michigan in the posses¬ 
sion of the Illinese, some of whose descendants still survive in the Peorias and 
the Kaskaskias, south-west of the Mississippi. These “ Illinese ” tribes were of the 
generic stock of the Algonquins, and did not exceed the others in agricultural skill. 
None of the early writers speak of, or allude to the species of cultivation of which the 
horticultural beds, under consideration, are the vestiges. The Ottowas, who still 
inhabit parts of the country, as at Gun Lake, Ottowa Colony, and other places 
dependent on Grand River, attribute these beds to a people whom they and the united 
Chippewas call the Mushcodainsug, or Little Prairie Indians. But there is no evidence 
that this people possessed a higher degree of industry than themselves. The Ottowas 
did not enter Lake Michigan till after their defeat in the St. Lawrence Valley, along 
with the other Algonquins, about the middle of the sixteenth century. The trees 
growing on the beds throughout southern Michigan and Indiana denote clearly that, 
at that period, the cultivation had been long abandoned. It was evidently of a prior 
period. It has been seen that it could not have been of European origin, if we confine 
our view to known or admitted periods of history. It is more reasonable to attribute 


60 


ANTIQUITIES. 


the labor to races of Indians of an early period, and of a more advanced grade of 
industry and manners, who were yet, however, to a certain extent, hunters. Are not 
these beds cotemporary vestiges of the epoch of the mound-builders, if not interior 
positions of the people themselves, who have so placed their fortified camps, or hill- 
seated outposts, as generally to defend their agricultural settlements from the 
approaches of enemies from the South ? 

The charm of mystery is so great, that men are apt to be carried away with it, 
and to seek in the development of unknown or improbable causes for the solution of 
phenomena which are often to be found in plainer and more obvious considerations. 
That this charm has thrown its spell, to some extent, around the topic of our western 
antiquities, cannot be denied. 


III. Influence of the Cultivation of the Zea Maize on the 

Condition, History, and Migrations of the Indian Race. 

The influence of the cultivation of the Zea Maize on the semi-civilization and 
history of the Indian race of this continent, has been very striking. It is impossible 
to resist this conclusion, in searching into the causes of their dispersion over the 
continent. We are everywhere met with the fact, that those tribes who cultivated 
corn, and lived in mild and temperate latitudes, reached a state of society which was 
denied to the mere hunters. The Indian race, who named the Mississippi Yalley at 
the era of the first planting of the American colonies, were but corn-growers to a 
limited extent. It was only the labor of females, while the men were completely 
hunters and periodical nomades. They spent their summers at their corn-fields, 
and their winters in the wild forests, doing just what their forefathers had done; 
and the thought of their ancestors having had the skill or industry to raise mounds, 
or throw up defences on the apex of hills or at sharp defiles, never occurred to them 
till questioned on the subject by the whites. They were, it is true, cultivators of 
the zea maize, so far as has been shown, and also of the tobacco-plant, of certain 
vines, and of a species of bean,—arts which existed pari passu with the hunter state, 
and which they professed to have known from the remotest times. The tribes of the 
Carolinas and Virginia, extending along the Atlantic quite into New England, raised 
large quantities of the corn, or zea maize, and they all relied upon it as one of their 
fixed means of subsistence. The traditions of even the most northerly tribes traced 
this grain to the South. That it was of tropical, or of south-western origin; that it 
extended gradually, and by an ethnographical impulse, into the temperate and 
northern latitudes, is affirmed by early observation, and is a result which the pheno¬ 
mena of climate a priora determines. The Indian corn will not mature north of lati¬ 
tude 46° 30',—it is not a profitable crop north of 44° 30', and the tribes who have, 


ANTIQUITIES. 


61 


from the earliest times, cultivated it, have no traditions that either themselves or 
their grain had a northern origin. The first tribes, indeed, in passing north from 
the continental summit of the Mississippi, who look northwardly on the course of 
their origin, are the non-corn-raising tribes,—the great Athabasca group. These look 
to the Arctic latitudes, or the north-east coasts of America, by the Unjiga Pass of the 
Rocky Mountains, as their place of origin; some of them preserve the tradition of 
their having landed, amid snow and ice, on the bleak and frigid shores of the Arctic 
Ocean. 

The Indian tribes of the United States, who formerly inhabited both sides of the 
Alleghany Mountains and the whole Mississippi Yalley, extending north to the Great 
Lakes, and reaching south around the northern coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, all, so 
far as known, preserve traditions which point either south, south-west, or due 
west, as their starting point in the ethnographic chain. With the zea maize they 
brought and propagated northwardly the art of pottery. They made cooking pots, 
porringers, and vessels of coarse clay, tempered with silex. This art extended also 
quite into the northern parts of New England, and to the banks of Lake Superior, 
where it ceases. The Indian tribes of the broad, elevated summit of the Rocky 
Mountains, never raised corn, nor had they the art of pottery. Fremont found no 
traces of either, till he passed entirely through them, or went into the latitudes of 
California ;—De Smet noticed neither, in his missionary journeys between the sources 
of the Missouri and the northern branch of the Columbia. The Shoshonees, or 
Snake tribe, who dwell in the arid valleys, about the area of Fort Hall, in the 
southern pass, boil their fish and the flesh of the few animals of those longitudes, in 
pots made of osiers, or small roots and fibres dug from the ground. 1 On the con¬ 
trary, the history of the track of migration of all the known tribes of the low and 
swampy latitudes of the Mississippi Yalley and of the Atlantic coasts, is distinctly 
traced by the fragments of pottery which mark the sites of their ancient villages. 
Nothing is, indeed., more characteristic of these village sites. 

With these two elements, — the arts of raising corn and making pottery, in which 
they all agree, — our American Indians of the corn-yielding latitudes also brought 
with them the knowledge of the three species of mounds which particularly mark 
the western longitudes; namely, the tribal mound of augury or oracles, and of high 
annual oblations, the mound of sepulture, and the village mound of ordinary sacrifice. 
These were very different in their object and structure, but were sometimes mixed in 
application, as caprice or necessity might dictate, or the fortunes of war, which gave 
the conquering tribe the power, might determine. They all arose, and were founded 
on one fundamental principle and characteristic of the race; namely, their Religion, 
_in which the worship of the sun and moon and various planets stood as types of 


1 Vide N. J. Wyeth, Esq. Doc. Ind. Off. Int. Dept. 




62 


ANTIQUITIES. 


divinity, and was, more or less, an element of union; and this system of worship 
appears to have marked all the primordial or first emigrated tribes. It must be 
recollected, as one of the fundamental points in our antiquities, that the Indian 
tribes are of an age which is very antique,—that they have occupied various parts of 
the continent not only for centuries, but probably for scores of centuries. An 
observer, otherwise prone to great sobriety of conclusion, thinks they must have 
reached the continent soon after the dispersion of mankind. 1 

A people who require a pile of earth or stones in the shape of a mound, — a 
teocalli or House of God, as the Aztec word imports, — though they be otherwise 
incapable of combined labor, except when religion impels them, may be supposed 
to have manual skill and means to raise either. The united hand-labor of many, 
devoted to such an object, would soon accomplish it. There is nothing, indeed, in 
the magnitude and structure of our western mounds, which a semi-hunter and semi- 
agricultural population, like that which may be ascribed to the ancestors or Indian 
predecessors of the existing race, could not have executed; whereas, the interior of 
these earthy pyramids, even the largest of them, has disclosed nothing beyond a 
rude state of the arts, or, at best, such arts of pottery and sculpture, shell-work and 
stone implements, as are acknowledged to belong to the hunter or semi-hunter period. 
It is these interred evidences of the actual state of the arts, found in the mounds, 
that denote the mounds themselves to be the work of the semi-hunter races, before 
they or their descendants had fallen into their lowest state of barbarism, or that 
type in which they were found by the colonists between 1584 and 1620. There 
is little to sustain a belief that these ancient works are due to tribes of more fixed 
and exalted traits of civilization, far less to a people of an expatriated type of 
civilization, of either an Asiatic or European origin, as several popular writers 
have, very vaguely and with little severity of investigation, imagined. 

It is impossible to discuss, on general principles, the vestiges of the agricultural 
labors, and curious “ garden-beds,” in the forests and prairies of Indiana and Michigan, 
which have been taken up for examination in this paper, without considering the 
subject of an antique period of semi-civilization in the West, in all its bearings. 
Viewed in its true lights, there appears to be a unity of period and general character 
in the mounds, the elevated and various earth-works, defences, hill-tops, ditches and 
embankments, remains of cultivated fields, the peculiar and low state of the 
Mechanic arts, the ignorance of the use of metal, and the want of knowledge of 
the common principles of antique Military science, which are, more or less, evident 
and conspicuous at the various sites of western antiquities, but which yet stamp a 
certain character of unity upon all. This coincidence in knowledge and want of 


1 Vide Mr. Gallatin. Am. Eth. Trans. Yol. I. 




ANTIQUITIES. 


63 


knowledge, marking the type of the civilization, is to be traced in the antiquities of 
the whole area of country from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, extending eastward 
to the cape of Florida, and northward, both along the Atlantic shores and up the 
valley of the Mississippi and its great tributaries, till the mingled evidences of it, 
from both leading tracks of migration, eventually meet, and are to be found in the 
wide area of the Lakes. 

The Aztecs did not, according to their own records—the pictorial scrolls—reach the 
Valley of Mexico until A. D. 1090. There are no evidences to be relied on, of 
inhabitants of earlier date in the Mississippi Valley, who were more elevated in their 
character than mere roving hunters, and worshippers of geni. Most of the western 
monuments denote the twelfth century as the period of their abandonment. This is 
the general period indicated by the growth of the larger forest trees, on mounds and 
works of art, in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys, and in Florida. The Aztecs do not 
trace their history farther back than to their point of landing on the Pacific; i. e., one 
hundred and eighty-six years. They trace their migration directly from the north, which 
would have been correct, generally speaking, had they come, in this migratory move¬ 
ment of one hundred and eighty-six years, from the banks of the river Gila, or any 
part of the peninsula of California, or the gulf-coast of California, as starting points. 
They do not profess to have come from the east or north-east, which they must have 
done, had they reached Mexico from the Mississippi Valley, or the sea-coasts of 
Florida, Cuba, or the Antilles. It was a movement taking place, with every pro¬ 
bability, in longitudes west of the arid spurs and elevations of the Rocky Mountains, 
and cannot be supposed to have extended over the wide deserts of sand, without 
game, grass, or water, intervening between those mountains and the sea-coast of 
Upper California. Such a migration, which was made with great deliberation, building 
towns and remaining for a series of years at a place, must have disturbed the relations 
of the Indian tribes, through whose territories they marched, and among whom they 
roamed, producing lateral migrations, not westwardly, which would bring them to 
the shores of the Pacific, whence the Aztecs moved, but towards the east. And 
when they gained strength enough to overturn the Toltecs and their confederates, 
still more extensive migratory movements must be supposed to have resulted. Some 
of these movements tended southward and south-eastward; reaching on one side 
towards the Pacific, and on the other into Central America and Yucatan, where 
both the lexicography and the style of building and mode of life denote ancient 
affiliations. Others would press northwardly and north-eastwardly, where temperate 
latitudes, and forests abounding with game of every species, would furnish strong 
means of temptation to men of migratory habits. It is most reasonable to suppose, 
that the ancient population of the Mississippi Valley, and thence, in process of time, 
of the Atlantic coast and plains south of the great lakes, was thus derived; and 
if so derived, it would bring with it the zea maize, the bean and vine, and summer 


64 


ANTIQUITIES. 


fruits—a taste which is most remarkable with all our western Indians—and the 
knowledge of making cooking vessels, which all the corn-planting tribes possessed. 
It is certain that the Aztecs, who, in their pictorial scroll, preserved by Boturini, 
represent themselves as landing from an island, in a boat moved by paddles, did 
not travel east two thousand miles across the fruitless waste of the Bocky Mountains, 
to get into the Mississippi Valley, where some writers have located Aztlan, before 
they set out northwardly for Mexico, from this extraordinary position. Nor would 
they, in such a movement, — one more arduous, indeed, than that of the Israelites by 
Sinai,—have found, as they did, tropical fruits. 

The fact that the ancient Indian tribes of the Mississippi Valley brought the zea 
maize with them, is almost demonstrative proof that they proceeded from southern 01 
intertropical latitudes. This grain was the element of Mexican civilization. They 
could not have lived in large masses or towns without it; consequently, they could 
not, without such a fixed means of subsistence, have built the pyramids of Cholula 
and Chaleo, and other like works. Erratic tribes, who once knew the value of this 
grain, would never relinquish it or forget its mode of culture, however far they 
migrated. Most of our tribes have invented myths, to denote it as the gift of the 
Deity to them, and as designed for their subsistence when game failed. The 
cultivation of large fields of corn would have enabled these tribes to band together, 
and thus to have it in their power to erect the largest mounds in the West. It is 
remarkable, indeed, that the most numerous as well as the largest mounds are seated 
on fertile plains or in rich alluvial valleys, which are the best corn lands West of the 
Alleghanies. 

Assuming, then, that tribes from the Mexican latitudes, in its widest ancient extent, 
—which we may, for convenience, limit to either the Rio Bravo del Norte or even the 
banks of the Rio Rosco or Red River,—furnished the element of the ancient population 
of the Mississippi Valley,—that is, the mound-builders and real authors of the period 
of agricultural industry denoted by antiquarian evidences,—and we have no reason to 
question their ability or capacity, any more than their strong natural taste, founded 
on religious habit, to erect the mounds and defences which have been enigmas in those 
fertile latitudes for so long a period. That their predecessors in this valley were mere 
foresters, rovers after game, who had no fixed habitation, and dressed simply in the 
azian, we may observe from such naked wandering tribes being found by them in their 
migration through latitudes west of the mountains, where such men are depicted as 
prisoners, dragged along by the hair of the head, as shown by Baturini’s map, to be 
sacrificed by their sanguinary priests. 

A war between two Indian elements, so diverse of habits, — a collision of interests 
and power between a semi-civilized and barbaric class of tribes,—would be the 
natural result. Temporary attacks, the conflict of whole tribes, and the dreadful 
retaliations of a people whose rites and practices in the treatment of prisoners were 


ANTIQUITIES. 


65 


horrible, would in time embroil thp whole valley, in all its length and breadth, and 
bring general combinations of race against race. In this manner the feature of 
military defences, whose remains are now mostly overgrown by the forest, would 
arise. These defences are all very rude, but peculiar. They appear to have 
been a native development of the art of strategy. There is nothing of the old 
world’s knowledge apparent here. Hostile tribes fortified the apex of a hill, or 
threw up rings of earth, or raised plateaus or small mounds in a plain. The ditch 
was generally within , and not without the wall. It was, in fact, a shelter, for men, or 
native magazine, from missiles. The Tlascalan gateway denotes an affinity of 
military knowledge with the tribes to whom we refer this particular kind of earth¬ 
work. Both the races seem to have contented themselves with making the entrance 
to a fort difficult, and giving the defenders of it the advantage in the use of missiles 
and forest arms. The small mounds were placed sometimes inside and sometimes 
outside of the gateways and openings. From these artificial hillocks a hand-to-hand 
fight, with arrows, spears, and clubs, could be advantageously maintained. The 
raised areas were evidently the site of more formidable works, and of what might be 
deemed the temple service of the priests; and these, which appear to be few, embrace 
the double objects of religion and defence. Such manifestly were the ancient sites of 
Marietta, Circleville, and Chillicothe, which may be regarded as the chief points of 
the ancient power in the Ohio Yalley. 

That there were such general combinations between native tribes of northern and 
southern races, is denoted, not only by the extension of the art of mound-building 
over northern latitudes, but also by the traditions of the Iroquois 1 and the Lenawpes, 
who distinctly speak of them, and tell us that, after long struggles, the northern 
confederacy of tribes prevailed, and overcame or drove off the intruding tribes towards 
the south . 2 


IY. Antiquities of the higher Northekn Latitudes of the 

United States. 

Much caution is required in recording the traditions of the aborigines; and the 
difficulty is increased by the extensive multiplication of tribes and bands, who have 
had the ambition to figure as original people or principals in their respective groups; 
the frequency with which they have crossed each other’s track in the course of 
their leading migrations; and the often preposterous claims to tribal originality 
and supremacy which are set up. There are no records of any sort, beyond their 


9 


1 Tide Notes on the Iroquois; also, Cusic. 

2 American Philosophical Transactions, Vol. I. 





66 


ANTIQUITIES. 


rude monuments of earth and stone implements; and even these disappear in 
proceeding north beyond a certain latitude. Few of the Indians are qualified, by 
habits of reflection, to state that which is known or has occurred among them 
in past years; and those who attempt to supply by invention what is wanting in 
fact, often make a miserable jumble of gross improbabilities. History cannot stoop 
to preserve this. It must be left as the peculiar province of allegory and mythology. 
Indeed, their imaginative legends furnish by far the most interesting branch of their 
oral traditions; and hence this development of the mind of the race will be noticed 
at large under that head. 

In the highest latitudes occupied by the Algonquins, on and north of the Lake 
Superior basin, we search in vain for any striking objects of antiquity. In the 
actual basin of Lake Superior, the oldest and most impressive features are those 
arising from the upheaval of rocks by ancient volcanic forces, or from the extra¬ 
ordinary effects of lake action, operating upon large areas of the sedimentary rocks, 
which have been broken up by the waves, and re-deposited on the shore in the 
form of vast sand dunes. But these disturbing forces belong strictly to the consider¬ 
ation of its geological phenomena. The mining ruins are by far the most important, 
and will be noticed hereafter. (Vide G.) 

There are no artificial mounds, embankments, or barrows in this basin, to denote 
that the country had been anciently inhabited; and when the inquiry is directed 
to that part of the continent which extends northward from its northern shores, this 
primitive character of the face of the country becomes still more striking. The 
scanty character of the forest growth, the diminished area of the soil, and the 
increased surface of bare and exposed rock, impart to the country an air of arid 
desolation. Ancient seas, of heavy and long-continued volume, appear to have 
dragged along, whether by the aid of ice-fields or not, vast boulders and abraded 
rocks, which are pitched confusedly into gulfs and depressions of the surface; while 
the more elevated and denuded portions of the rocks bear, in their polished or 
scratched superficies, indubitable evidence of this ancient action. The Indian, 
standing upon these heaps of rock-rubbish, and unable to reach the true causes of 
the disturbance, is prone to account for appearances as the work of some mytho¬ 
logical personage. It is something to affirm that the mound-builders, whose works 
have filled the West with wonder,—quite unnecessary wonder,—had never extended 
their sway here. The country appears never to have been fought for, in ancient 
times, by a semi-civilized or even pseudo-barbaric race. There are but few darts 
or spear-heads. I have not traced remains of the incipient art of pottery, known 
to the Algonquin and other American stocks, beyond the Straits of Saint Mary, 
which connect Lakes Huron and Superior; and am inclined to believe that they 
do not extend, in that longitude, beyond the latitude of 36° 30'. There is a fresh 
magnificence in the ample area of Lake Superior, which appears to gainsay the 


antiquities. 


67 


former existence and exercise by man of any laws of mechanical or industrial 
power, beyond the canoe-frame and the war-club. And its storm-beaten and castel¬ 
lated rocks, however imposing, give no proofs that the dust of human antiquity, 
in its artificial phases, has ever rested on them. 

By far the most striking object in the basin of Lake Superior, which had attracted 
the attention of the early inhabitants, was, evidently, the native copper, which, in 
the shape of detritus, exists so extensively in that quarter. This metal, which is 
found also in situ, as part of the product of veins in the trap rock, has been scattered 
abroad, by geological action, along with the erratic block and diluvial deposits. It is 
also found to exist, to an uncommon extent, in its original position along with the 
ores, spars, and vein stones, in both which locations the Indians, who call it Red Iron, 1 
explored it. They employed it in making various ornaments, implements, and 
instruments. It was used by them for arm and wrist bands, pyramidal tubes, or dress 
ornaments, chisels and axes, in all cases, however, having been wrought out exclusively 
by mere hammering, and brought to its required shapes without the use of the 
crucible, or the art of soldering. Such is the state of the manufactured article, as 
found in the gigantic Grave Creek Mound, and in the smaller mounds of the Scioto 
Yalley, and wherever it has been scattered, in early days, through the medium of the 
ancient Indian exchanges. In every view which has been taken of the subject, the 
area of the basin of Lake Superior must be regarded as the chief or primary point of 
this intermediate traffic in native copper; and, so far as we know, it appears to have 
been in the hands of the Algonquin tribes: at least, those tribes were found here at 
the opening of the sixteenth century, when these portions, generally, of the (then) 
territories of New France were first visited. 

Having found a latitude beyond which the architectural antiquities of the Missis¬ 
sippi Yalley do not apparently reach, it is seen that such antiquities begin to meet the 
steps of the inquirer as soon as he passes south of this general boundary. They 
increase, both in frequency and importance, as he proceeds to the respective basins of 
Lakes Huron and Michigan, and over the plains and through the fertile valleys of the 
lake and prairie, and Western States, till they are found to extend to, and characterize 
the whole Mississippi Yalley. They are also traced through all the states east and 
west of that valley, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and extending a limited distance 
from the Floridian peninsula, along the shores of the north Atlantic. 

In exchange for the native copper of Lake Superior, and for the brown pipe-stone 
of the Chippewa River of the Upper Mississippi, and the blood-red pipe-stone of the 
Coteau des Prairies west of the St. Peters, they received certain admired species of 
the sea-shells of the Floridian coasts and West Indies, as well as some of the more 
elaborately and well-sculptured pipes of compact carbonate of lime, grauwacke, clay 


Miskopewabik. 





68 


ANTIQUITIES. 


slate, and serpentines, of which admirable specimens, in large quantities, have recently 
been found by researches made in the inverted-bowl-shaped, or sacrificial mounds of 
the Ohio Valley, and in the ossuaries of the Lakes. The makers of these may also 
be supposed to have spread, northwardly, the various ornamented and artistic burnt- 
clay pipes of ancient forms and ornaments; and the ovate and circular beads, heart- 
shaped pendants, and ornamented gorgets, made from the conch, which have received 
the false name of ivory, or fine bone and horn. The direction of this native exchange 
of articles appears to have taken a strong current down the line of the Great Lakes, 
through Lakes Erie and Ontario, along the coasts of the States of Ohio and New York, 
and into the Ganadas. Specimens of the blood-red pipe-stone, wrought as a neck 
ornament, and of the conch bead pendants and gorgets, and of the antique short clay 
pipes, occur, in the ancient Indian burial-grounds, as far east as Onondaga and Oswego, 
in New York, and to the high country which abounds in such extraordinary sepulchral 
deposits of human bones and Indian ornaments, about Beverly and the sources of the 
several small streams which pour their waters into Burlington Bay on the north shores 
of Lake Ontario. At the latter place I also obtained specimens of the pyrola perversa 
in an entire state. All these are deemed to be relics of the Ante-Cabotian period. It 
may be necessary, perhaps, hereafter, to except from this character the antique short 
ornamented clay pipes named. There are, at present, reasons for believing that 
however peculiar this species of pottery may appear to the mere American antiquary, 
its prototype existed, and may be found, as a relic, in France, Holland, or Germany. 
There is, indeed, something of an Etruscan cast of character about it. Copper axes, 
stone pestles, fleshing chisels, fragments of earthen kettles and vases, and mortars for 
pounding corn, and for breaking up the feldspathic and other materials used for 
tempering the clay of their earthen-ware, occur in almost every portion of the 
Algonquin and Chippewa territories. There have also been found specimens of the 
ancient bone needles used by the females in making some of their fabrics. Reference 
is made to the annexed plates, with descriptions for each of the objects of antiquarian 
art above mentioned, together with their names and uses, and the time and place of 
their discovery and disinterment. 

In looking back to the ancient period of occupancy of the upper Lakes, there are 
one or two features in the earlier antiquarian period, which have not, so far as my 
knowledge extends, received the notice they appear to merit. The first consists of 
sepulchral trenches or ossuaries, in which the bones of entire villages, it would seem, 
have been carefully deposited, after the bodies had been previously scaffolded or 
otherwise disposed of, till the fleshy parts were entirely dissipated, and nothing left 
but the osteological frame. My attention was first arrested by a deposit of this kind, 
on one of the islands of Lake Huron, which had been broken into and exposed by 
action of the waves. This sepulchre had its direction from north to south, whereas 
all our existing Indian tribes are known to bury their dead east and west. The 


ANTIQUITIES. 


69 


thigh and leg bones were laid longitudinally. They were very clean and white, as if 
great care had been originally exercised in separating them from their integuments. 
The area of the bed may have been about four feet in width and depth, by twenty in 
length. The trench was not fully explored, but the entire number and quantity of 
bones of almost every part of the human frame, appeared to be such, that it must 
have embraced the accumulation of a community for a long time. The oldest 
Indians, at the neighboring island of Michillimackinac could give no account of it, 
though frequently interrogated. One of the elder men, who had long exercised the 
functions of a jossakeed, or Indian seer, suggested that they were probably sepulchres 
of the Mushlcodainsug, or “ Mascotins,” as they have been called by the French; — 
a tribe who are mentioned as having formerly occupied this quarter, and who had 
been at war with them. The term means Little Prairie Indians, and not, as some 
think, Fire-Indians. 1 

Recently, aboriginal remains of a very interesting character, including pictographic 
inscriptions, have been found in the islands of Lake Erie, which appear to throw light 
on the history of the Indian tribes who formerly inhabited that lake. These remains 
will be examined, and described in the next volume of this work. 


1 The Chippewa word for Prairie has the radix for fire, Shkoda , in it. Perhaps prairies were anciently- 
called fire-plains, from their periodical burnings. 



* 


E. THE STATE OF ART, AND MISCELLANEOUS 

FABRICS. 


1 . 

2 . 

8 . 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 

7 . 

8 . 
9 . 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 

13 . 

14 . 

15 . 

16 . 

17 . 

18 . 

19 . 

20 . 
21 . 
22 . 

23 . 

24 . 

25 . 

26 . 


General Views. 

Antique Pipe of the period of the landing. 
Stemless Pipe of Thunder Bay. 

Indian Axe. 

Arrow-head. 

Mace, or war-club. 

Antique Gorget and Medal. 

Corn Pestle. 

Akeek, or Indian Pot. 

Discoidal Stones. 

Funereal Food Vases. 

Coin, or its equivalent in sea-shells. 
Balista, or Demon’s Head. 

Medaeka, or Amulets. 

Antique Javelin, or Spear. 

Aishkun, or Bone Awl. 

Bone Shuttle. 

Ice Cutter. 

Rope-maker’s Reed. 

Antique Mortar. 

Stone Block Prints. 

Fleshing Instrument. 

Antique Knife. 

Ancient Stone Bill, or Tomahawk. 

Copper Arm and Wrist-hands. 

Anomalous Objects of Art and Custom. 


1. If we were to judge the Chinese by the tools and implements which they 
employ, as these were exhibited for the first time to the British public in 1842, at the 
Chinese Museum at Knightsbridge, London, or as since shown by other collections in 
this country, without the fabrics produced by them, we should certainly underrate 
their skill and type of civilization and refinement beyond measure. This fact denotes 
how cautious we should be in judging of the arts of a people who are, by any possi¬ 
bility of just theory, descended from that mixed race, 1 or, what is more plausible, from 
the purer Mongolic family of northern Asia. It is astonishing, certainly, how exqui¬ 
sitely formed a pipe, spear-head, javelin, war-club, fish-hook, awl, or other implement 


1 The Chinese Nations and Languages. Knickerbocker, Vol. V., No. 5, 1835. 

(70) 



ANTIQUITIES. 


71 

of the present race of Indians, will be made by them, with no other tool but a rude 
knife, and other aids in the work, which no instructed mechanic would ever use. 
Among the articles attesting a mechanical or artistic power, of the antique or mound 
period, are well-wrought needles of bone, shuttles, discs of porphyry, axes, knives of 
chert, block-prints for clothing, rope-makers’ reeds, suction tubes of steatite, and 
various other implements denoting much aptitude in many arts. Descriptions of 
these several objects are given, in the sequel, with carefully drawn plates of each 
instrument. 

It is from a consideration of these antiquities, which have been disclosed by tumuli 
and the plough, that the true state of arts and fabrics of the mound and fort builders 
must be inferred. We are appealed to by these monuments of history, not to 
overrate nor underrate that state, whatever was its type, which we are not disposed 
to place high in the scale of civilization. But it appears, nevertheless, to have 
embraced a transition period between the pure hunter and the agricultural state, and 
to have felt the incipient impulses of an abundant and reliable means of subsistence, 
some fixed power of government, and the expansive influences of interior commerce, 
so far as the exchange of articles in kind went. 

This incipient state of a commercial element, and the first steps of a kind of 
centralism in government, acknowledged by this ancient people, is shown by the 
remains of antique mining ruins, such as those on Lake Superior ; where the 
supplies of native copper were got; also in the area of Indiana, where there appears 
to have been some attempts at metallurgy, perhaps post-Columbian; and the antique 
traces of the same species of labor existing in the valley of the Unica, or White 
River, and of the Arkansas river, and, perhaps, the recent discoveries of antique 
gold mining in California. Accounts of these are appended. These attempts, which 
evince industry and skill beyond the wants of the mere hunter era, are probably 
of one epoch; and admit of being grouped together. The whole of the western and 
northern antiquities of the highest class, embracing every monument of the kind, 
north of the contemplated territory of Utah, and the country north of the Gila, to 
which the Toltec and Aztec civilization probably reached, may be viewed together 
by the antiquarian, as forming the second type of American antique civilization. 
That this type was of a transferred Americo-Shemitic character, appears probable from 
renewed inquiries on the languages. That it was distinct from the Toltecan system, 
which ran to empire and idolatry, is also probable. It clearly included the various and 
conflicting tribes, whose strife for independency and wild liberty and loose leagues, 
without the true principle of confederacy, drove it to an opposite system, and led to 
final disunion, tumult, and downfall. 

This ancient group of tribes, who have left their remains in the Mississippi Valley, 
and appear to have culminated and fallen there, before fresh hordes of adventurous 
hunters and warriors, had no coin; no science beyond the first elements of geometry, 


72 


ANTIQUITIES. 


numbers, and natural astronomy; and, necessarily, (from this want of coin,) no fiscal 
system. Yet there were, evidently, contributions in kind, to enable them to work 
together on the public defences and tumuli which remain. So much seems clear. 

There was another element besides their tendency to monarchy, which separated 
the Toltecan from the Utah, or northern type of tribes. It was the strong bias to 
idolatry which led them to found their monarchy on it; while the northern tribes 
preferred the simpler worship of their gods of air, without temples or an edifice of a 
local character, except elevated places for offering incense and supplications. When 
these could not be secured by the selection of geological eminences, they raised arti¬ 
ficial heaps of earth. The west has hundreds of such geological or drift mounds. 
This was the history of the tumuli. The idolatry of image worship was not tolerated 
by the masses generally, but entered into the limits of their southern borders, as we 
perceive by small images of stone or pottery, found in Mississippi, Tennessee, and 
Western Virginia. They were wild worshippers of the elements. They loved to 
imagine a god who could ride on “ the wings of the windwho could revel in the 
clouds, or walk the blue arch of heaven. In every historical sense, they “ sacrificed 
and burnt incense on high places.” 1 The minor and more remote tribes, who had fled 
across the Alleghanies probably at an earlier date, in the attractive pursuit of the 
deer and bear, and in quest of that wild freedom which they loved; do not, when 
their habits and traditions and character are closely scrutinized, appear to have been 
of a radically different stock from the mound-builders; for these Algonquin tribes 
worshipped the same gods of the winds and mountains. Even in Massachusetts, 
where there is not an artificial mound, and nothing which can be dignified with the 
name of an antique fosse, they had, agreeably to John Elliot, the apostolic missionary 
of 1631, their “ Qunuhqui aye nongash ,” 2 or high places, where the sagamores and 
powwows lit their fires, and offered incense. 


2. Antique Pipe of the Period of the Landing. 

The American Indian takes a great pride in his pipe. There is nothing too precious 
for him to make it from. His best efforts in ancient sculpture were devoted to it. 
And there is nothing in his manners and customs more emphatically characteristic, 
than his habits of smoking. 

Smoking the leaves of the nicotiana was an ancient custom with the Indian tribes. 
Tobacco, which is improperly supposed to be an Asiatic plant, appears first to have 
been brought to England from the North American coasts by the ships of Sir Walter 
Raleigh, about 1588. Powhatan and his sylvan court smoked it. It was considered 


1 II. Kings, xv. 4. 


2 Indian Bible. 



ANTIQUITIES. 


73 


a sacred gift. They affect, in their oral tales, to have received it like the zea maize, 
by an angelic messenger from the Great Spirit. They offered the fumes of it to him, 
by burning it in their pipes. This ceremony always preceded solemn occasions. 
They then partook of the same oblation; and it is well known that they spend a 
large part of their leisure hours in the pastime of smoking. 

It is a custom which marks them in a peculiar manner. While it appears to be 
ancient, there is nothing more fixed in their habits. I have met them in far distant 
locations, in the wilderness, in a state of want for food, and yet the first request has 
been for tobacco. So fixed and general a habit would appear to connect itself with 
their geographical origin. Yet here we are quite at fault. 

There is no mention of the custom of smoking in the Sacred Volume. Abraham 
and Jacob when they were called upon by the duties of hospitality, offered food, but 
not a pipe or a smoking mixture, to their guests. Job does not mention it. When 
God says, “it is a smoke in my nose,” it is the fumes of a meat-sacrifice that is, 
alluded to. There is, in fact, no allusion to this custom in the Old or New Testament. 
Herodotus does not name the pipe or smoking. This looks as if it were an occidental 
custom. We are obliged, in fact, to come down to the close of the fifteenth century, 
A. D., the discovery of America, for our first knowledge of the Nicotiana, and its 
uses. 

The ancient tribes made their op-wa-gun, or pipe, from various stones or mineral 
substances elaborately carved, or from a species of terra cotta. Their graves and 
tumuli afford specimens of both. The Aztecs employed green serpentine. It is 
apparent, by the progress of antiquarian discovery, that the instrument, as well as 
the weed, were offered in sacrifice. Some of the western streams have encroached on 
a species of low mound, disclosing near its interior base a cup-shaped or semi-circular 
line of hardened earth, which, on investigation, has been found to be a buried hearth 
or altar, containing innumerable specimens of ancient stone pipes, which appear to 
have been much altered by fire. Most of these specimens are elaborately carved, 
representing birds or animals of the country, known to ancient tribes. That these 
implements had been offered by fire, is conclusively proved by many of them being 
cracked and burned. The altar is also clearly identified by the deeply hardened strata 
of loam or earth. Dr. Davis, of Chillicothe, has investigated these altar-mounds on 
the banks of the Scioto river. Ample descriptions of them are given in the first 
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 

The Scioto Valley appears to have anciently borne a comparatively dense popula¬ 
tion. It is an entire misapprehension to suppose that this was evidence of a highly 
civilized population. The very custom of smoking, and offering the tobacco plant 
and the pipe at these altars, a custom so peculiar in itself, is the best proof that the 
people were of the non-industrial Indian race. What other nation would think of 
offering on such a rude altar such gifts? We have seen that the oriental world had 
10 


74 


ANTIQUITIES. 


no such custom. The style of the pipes is indeed elaborate, and bespeaks a proficiency 
in the art, which is equal to that of the Toltecs or Aztecs. But it is the pipe- 
sculpture. No article denoting a higher civilization was found. There are evidences 
that this art of pipe-sculpture was not confined to the Scioto or Ohio valleys. 
Mississippi and Tennessee, Alabama and Florida, exhibit detached specimens of 
equally good sculpture in the same article. It has even been found as far north as 
N. lat. 46, on the St. Mary Straits. (See Fig. 2, Plate 9.) This sculpture, which is a 
limestone, represents a lizard. No altar-mounds have been disclosed in these latter 
States. But these scattered evidences of art, if followed up with skill and assiduity, 
would probably disclose similar altars in those states. Birds, and not quadrupeds, 
were generally sculptured. 

Of the second species of pipes, namely, the Terra Cotta, there are reasons for 
supposing it generally of a posterior age. 


3. Short Antique Stemless Pipe disclosed by the upturning 

OF AN ANCIENT TREE AT THUNDER BAY, MICHIGAN. 

In the month of June, 1839, an Indian chief of River Au Sables, named Muk-ud-aie 
Kain-eiw, or the Black Eagle, presented for my inspection and acceptance an antique 
pipe of peculiar construction, which he informed me he had found on the main land 
at Thunder Bay, near the river. 

The following drawing (Plate 8, Figures 1, 2, and 3) exhibits an exact figure of this 
ancient relic. 

The chief informed me that he had obtained it about six or seven feet below the 
surface of the soil, where it had been disclosed by the blowing down of a large pine, 
which had brought up by its roots a heavy mass of earth. The tree was two fathoms 
round at the butt, and would make, he said, a large canoe. With it was found the 
bones of a human skeleton, and two vases or small akeeks, but so much decayed that 
they broke in taking them up. In them, besides the pipe, were some of the bones of 
the pickerel’s spine — a kind of sharp dorsal process. He saw the thigh-bones of the 
skeleton, but the upper part of it appeared to have fallen to decay, and was not 
visible. 

He. thinks the tree must have grown up on an old grave, and that the soil must 
have accumulated on it; an opinion which appears almost inevitable, for there is no 
other way of accounting so well for the unusual depth. 

The pipe, he avers, although so unlike those now employed, was used by their 
ancestors. It was smoked by clapping the small end to the mouth, without the use 
of a wooden stem. Pipes of this kind were in use by the old Indians. Thus far the 
chief. 





o 



Ackerman li thf379 Broadway NY 


Brawn by S. Eastman U.S. Army 


ANTIQUE PIPE'S 


Plate 8. 





























/ 











Plate 9 



Drawn by Cap* S.Eastman U. S. A. 


- Lith Printed &. Col i by J. T. Bowen. Plul 


ANTIQUE PIPES. 




ANTIQUITIES. 


75 


It consists of a species of comparatively fine-grained, yellowish pottery, resembling 
the terra cotta, but more slightly baked, and less perfectly tempered. 

Subsequent observations, in 1844 and 1845, have disclosed the same species of 
antique pipe, of various patterns, in the remarkable ossuaries at Beverly, in Canada 
West; and in ancient graves in Onondaga, Genesee, and Erie counties, in Western 
New York. The specimens found at the former locality are represented in Plate 8, 
Figures 5 and 6, and in Plate 10, Figures 1 and 2. Those found in Western New York 
are depicted in Plate 9, Figures 1 and 3, and in Plate 11, Figure 5. There was also 
found, among the archaeological relics which are so striking in the area of Onondaga, 
a beautiful specimen, carved from green serpentine, the locality of which mineral is 
unknown to mineralogists. (See Figure 4, Plate 9.) The specimen, Figure 4, Plate 8, 
was found in the collection of Mr. Tomlinson, at the Grave Creek Mound, in 1844. 
It is elaborately carved from a dark-colored steatite. Numbers 2 and 3, Plate 12, are 
from the same neighborhood. They evince much skill in the style of carving. 
Number 3 represents a fish common to the Ohio waters. 

Among the fragmentary articles which may be referred to the pipe sculpture and 
pipe porcelain, are the snake’s head, Figure 6, Plate 9, and snake’s body, Figure 5, 
Plate 9. 

The most noted specimen of the prevalent taste for smoking, as well as skill in the 
manufacture of the pipe, is represented by Figures 1, 2, and 3, Plate 13. This specimen 
is in the form of an idol, and was smoked from the back, by the adjustment of a stem 
to the lower orifice depicted in the back. It appears to have anciently stood on some 
rocks near the old Indian trail leading from the present site of Brownsville, (the 
Old Bedstone,) to the Ohio river, which is struck about twenty miles below 
Wheeling. This specimen is eleven inches in length, by four and a half broad, and 
is formed of coarse, neutral-colored sandstone. 


4. Indian Axe. 

Various stone implements of the antique period of the hunter occupancy of America, 
have received the name of “Indian Axe.” With what justice this term was applied, 
in relation to the use made of the European axe of iron, it is proposed to inquire. 
The ancient Indians, prior to the era of the discovery of America, had indeed no use 
for an axe, in the sense in which we apply the term now-a-days. Fire was the great 
agent they employed in felling trees and reducing their trunks to proper lengths. 
There was no cutting of trees. No stone axe, which we have ever examined, 
possesses the hardness or sharpness essential to cut the solid fibres of an oak, a pme, 
an elm, or any species of American tree whatever. 

When the wants of an Indian hunter had determined him to fell a tree, in order to 
make a log canoe, or construct pickets for a palisade, he erected a fire around it, close 


76 


ANTIQUITIES. 


upon the ground. When the fire had burned in so as to produce a coal that might 
impede its further progress, a stone instrument of a peculiar construction, with a 
handle to keep the person from the heat, was employed to pick away the coal, and 
keep the surface fresh. This is the instrument called by them Agakwut, and to which 
popular opinion has usually applied the name of axe. The annexed, (Plate 14, Fig. 
1,) is an exact representation of one of these antique axes, from the region of the 
upper lakes. De Bry pictures this process in making canoes. 

The mode of using this ancient axe, which would be more appropriately classed as 
a pick, was by twisting around it, of a size corresponding to the ring, a supple withe, 
forming the handle, which could be firmly tied together, and which would enable the 
user to strike a firm inward blow. (See Plate 15, Fig. 1.) This handle was not at 
right angles with the axe. It was so placed, as the ring shows, so that at about the 
length of three feet, it would intersect a line drawn at right angles from the foot of 
the blade, or edge of greatest sharpness. This incidence of handle to the blade, would 
enable an indrawing blow to be struck, which there were practical reasons for. 

The length of the instrument figured is seven inches, wanting a fraction; its 
breadth below the ring three and a quarter—at the ring, two and three quarter 
inches, at the point of the blade two inches nearly. The whole weight is three 
pounds. The ring is not continued around the inner, or handle side, for the plain 
reason that no ring at that part is necessary. If made, it would weaken the instrument 
and give no additional support to the handle. The material of this specimen is a 
compact grauwacke;—a material of little hardness, and which could be readily rubbed 
and shaped. 

To this account of the earliest stone axe, it may be objected that there are smaller 
specimens, so small indeed that they could not have been required for an adult. We 
possess a specimen three and two-third inches in length, and another only two and a 
quarter inches in length. It is replied that these small axes were adapted to the 
strength of boys and children, whose labors in the process of fire-fretting were always 
welcome and important, and their aid was probably given, particularly when we reflect 
that this labor was generally done by the females. 

Canoes of wood are known to have been excavated and shaped by the same 
process of fire, even after the discovery and settlement of the country. De Bry gives 
the process as practised by the Indians of Virginia in 1688. 

The small species of the coal axe, employed by youths and boys, are numerous. 
Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate 16, are from specimens preserved in the National Institute, 
Washington. Figure 5, same Plate, same locality, is believed to be a hand specimen 
of the same kind of implement. Figures 1 and 4, Plate 14, are from the West. 
Figure 2, of the same Plate, is believed to be a hand specimen, formed chisel-shaped. 
Figure 3 is a drawing reversed, from an antique in the National Institute which 
appears to have had an eye for a helve, and presented a blade well formed for striking 
an indrawing stroke. 





















/ 


















































































































Plate 11. 






















ANTIQUITIES. 


77 


5. Aeeow-Head. 

A geeat variety of these ancient instruments was fabricated, according to the 
species of hunting, the size and ferocity of the animals pursued, and the ages of the 
persons using them. Boys were always furnished with small arrow-points, such as 
were expected to be spent against squirrels, or the lesser quadrupeds and birds. This 
was the second lesson in learning the art of hunting; the first consisted in using the 
blunt arrow or Beekwuk, 1 which was fired at a mark. Great complacency afid pride 
was evinced by the parents in preparing the rising generation for this art, on expert¬ 
ness in which so much of his future success depended; and a boy’s first success in 
killing a bird or quadruped, was uniformly celebrated by a festival, in which the 
object, killed was eaten, with great gravity, by the elders, and the feat extravagantly 
extolled. Thus early was emulation excited. 

Of the various kinds of arrows picked up in the fields and woods, we introduce the 
figures of several, numbered and classified agreeably to their sizes and uses. The 
smallest of these, or boy’s arrow of the first class, does not exceed, but often falls 
below, one inch, besides the shaft, in length: from this they vary to three and a 
quarter inches. In breadth and the form of the barb there was also much variety, 
and an entire and ingenious adaptedness of the instrument to the object. Figures 1 
to 9, Plate 17, and 1 to 12, Plate 18, exhibit this variety. Of Plate 18, Figures 4 and 
5, and 8 to 12 respectively, are drawings of specimens deposited in the collection of 
the National Institute, at Washington. The use of the arrow, among the early 
nations of mankind, is so ancient that history is at fault in fixing its date. There 
is reason to believe that it was coincident with the origin of war, and with the 
killing of animals. The instrument, in connection with the bow, is first mentioned 
in the Bible, in Genesis. The paintings found. in the ruins of Nineveh, and the 
earliest dates of mankind, prove its antiquity in war and hunting; and, although the 
invention of gunpowder has led to far more efficacious and powerful means of 
destruction in war and sieges, it admits of no question, that the bow and arrow are 
still the most speedy and efficacious instruments for the repetition of the onslaught on 
droves of animals. It is the testimony of hunters, white and red, in our day, that 
arrows can be discharged much faster, and more fatally, from the quiver and bow, 
upon herds of animals, than it is possible to load and fire balls from a single gun or 
rifle. An arrow from the bow of a Pawnee or Cheyenne has been known to pass 
through the body of a buffalo. Its force upon the human frame is prodigious; as' 
an instance of which I mention, that in some old bones, at Saganaw, an unextracted 


Algonquin. 



78 


ANTIQUITIES. 


arrow-head was found firmly imbedded in the tibia of a man, nor could any force 
detach it. 

The material of American arrows is generally a conchoidal chert, hornstone, or 
common quartz. In color it varies from light yellow, to neutral, smoky, or dark 
brown. The quartz, where that occurs, is usually of the fatty variety, and perfectly 
white. Pure flint has seldom, if ever, been found. 

6. Mace, or War-Club. 

There is no instance, it is believed, among the North American Indians, in which 
the war-club employed by them is made of a straight piece, or has not a recurved 
head. Generally, this implement consists of a shaft of heavy wood, such as the rock- 
inaple, with a ball carved at one side of the head, much in the manner of the South 
Sea Islander, or Polynesian war-clubs. 

Such is the Pug-ga-ma-gun of the Algonquins. It differs from the Polynesian club, 
chiefly in its possessing a tabular shaft, and in its less elaborate style of carving. 
Clubs exhibited at the war-dance or other ceremonial exhibitions, are always larger 
than those intended for practical use, and partake decidedly of a symbolical character. 

A practice has prevailed since the introduction of iron, of combining a lance with 
the same implement. It is then shaped somewhat in the form of the butt-end of a 
gun or rifle, but having more angular lines. A lance of iron, of formidable dimen¬ 
sions, is inserted at the intersection of the most prominent angle. This fearful weapon, 
which appears to be the most prominent symbol of war, is very common among the 
prairie tribes. No warrior is properly equipped without one. It is often elaborately 
ornamented with war eagles’ feathers, and with paints and devices. Brass tacks are 
sometimes used in the lance-clubs as ornaments, and not unfrequently a small hand 
looking-glass is sunk or inserted in the tabular part of the handle. It was then 
intended to be stuck in the ground, and to serve the warrior to make his war toilet. 
Figures of these several species will be inserted under the head of “Manners and 
Customs.” Of the antique mace, such as was in use prior to the discovery of the 
country, descriptions, accompanied by plates, have been given under the head of ' 
“Stone-bill,” or Pointed Mace; see Plate 11, Fig. 1. 

7. Antique Gorget, or Medal. 

Whether this was in ancient times merely an ornament which any one might wear, 
or a badge of authority, it might be fruitless now to inquire. It is probable that the 
modern practice of conferring metallic medals on chiefs only, and of marking thereby 
their authority, was founded on an ancient practice of this kind existing in the 
original tribes. 


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Drawn by Cap 1 S.Eastman,U. S'.A. 


litkPrinted & Col 3 by J. T. Bowen,PM 


Blade of a Stone Hatobet 
peculiar from Pawing an 
eye for the belve 


INDIAN AXE ,HATCHET AND CHISEL 





ANTIQUITIES. 


79 


The ancient gorget or medal of the North American tribes, was formed of the inner 
and shining parts of large sea-shells. The instance figured in Plate 19, Figs. 3 and 4, 
was taken from one of the old ossuaries of Beverly, Canada West. 1 

This article is three inches across, and three and three quarter inches from top 
to bottom. 

Another species of ancient medal or gorget of smaller size, found in their ancient 
places of sepulture, consisted of a circular piece of flat shell, from one and a half to 
two inches in diameter, quartered with double lines, having the devices of dots 
between them. This kind was doubly perforated in the plain of the circle. Three 
examples of this form of medal or badge of chieftainship are figured in Plate 25, Figs. 
7, 29, and 30. The specimen figure 29 was obtained from an old grave at Upper 
Sandusky, Ohio; and number 30, Plate 25, from a similar position in Onondaga 
county, N. Y. These localities serve to show its use among diverse tribes, and prove 
an extensive community of the prevalent manners and customs; — a point which it is 
important at all times to keep in view. 

In connection with this subject, there is given in Plate 12, Fig. 1, the representation 
of an ancient British medal, obtained from the descendants of the chief to whom it 
was given about sixty years after its date: (1764). It will be observed that this 
medal, which is rudely stamped, was struck the year of the crowning of George III. 
It presents the boy king’s head, crowned with the olive-leaf; and the inscription — 
.Georgius III., D. G. M. Bri. Fra. et Hib. Rex. F. D.—shows that the ancient title of 
the British kings was then retained in full. 

The obverse exhibits a British officer and an Indian, sitting under a tree on rolls of 
tobacco, shaking hands, with the motto, “ Happy while united.” The Indian has a 
pipe resting in his left hand. The officer has his left hand at his breast. The land¬ 
scape in the background is manifestly the city and harbor of New York; as the stamp 
“N. York,” “D. C. F.,” “1764,” plainly denotes. 

A wing crossed with a pipe, forms an appropriate figure at the top for hanging it by 
a ribbon. 

Figures 3 and 4, Plate 20, are medals of the French period of colonization in 
western New York, about 1666, in the area of Onondaga county; and are irrefragable 
proofs of that ill-fated scheme. Fig. 2 shows small medals of an octagonal form, 
inscribed with the names of St. Agatha and St. Lucia, of the Romish calendar. Both 
are made from an alloy resembling silver. Number 4 is an ovate medal of the same 
period, from a leaden plate, and rudely representing, on one side, the figure of a man 
hanging by his arms, and a snake before it. The other side represents a man sitting. 
Fig. 3, Plate 20, is a crucifix of silver, of the same period. No. 5, Plate 20, represents 
an ancient form of gorget, figured with the heads of snakes or tortoises. 

1 This specimen is preserved in the cabinet of curiosities of Miss Crooks, of Dundas; to whose politeness I 
owe the favor of being permitted to copy this, and some other antiquities. 




80 


ANTIQUITIES. 


8. Corn Pestle, or Hand Brat-Stone. 

The zea maize was cultivated by the Indian tribes of America throughout its whole 
extent. Cotton was raised by the Mexican and Peruvian tribes; but there is no 
instance on record in which the plant was cultivated by tribes living north of the Rio 
Grande del Norte. The Florida and Louisiana tribes raised a kind of melon, and per¬ 
haps some min or vegetables; but the whole of the tribes situated in the Mississippi 
Valley, in Ohio, and the Lakes, reaching on both sides of the Alleghanies, quite to 
Massachusetts, and other parts of New England, cultivated Indian corn. It was their 
staple product. The Delaware, the Hudson, Connecticut, and minor rivers north of 
it, yielded this grain ; and it was a gift which their sagamores and priests attributed 
to the god of the South-west. The dry grain was prepared for boiling by crushing it 
in a rude wooden or stone mortar. This was a severe labor, which fell to the women’s 
share ; but it was mitigated by preparing, daily, only as much as was required by the 
family. It was not crushed fine, but broken into coarse grains, in which state it was 
eaten by the eastern tribes, under the name of samp — a kind of hominy. The dish 
called “ succutash” consisted of green com, cut from the cob, and mixed with green 
beans. 

There is abundant evidence, in the ancient pestles found in the fields formerly 
occupied by Indian tribes throughout the Atlantic States, of the practice of using' 
pestles for crushing it, above referred to. These pestles were general^ made from a 
semi-hard rock, often grauwacke, or a kind of silicious slate. They were about ten 
inches in length, tapering to the top, and would weigh five or six pounds. 

The following specimen (Plate 21, Fig. 1,) is from the Tawasantha, or Norman’s 
Kill Valley, Albany County, N. Y. It is of the stratum of grauwacke rock, which lies 
in connection with argillite of that county. 

There was an important mode of preparing the zea maize for the use of warriors 
who were expected to be out many days. The grain was reduced to a finer condition 
than samp, or hominy. It was then mixed with a portion of sugar, made from the 
acer saccharinum. The whole was put into a small leathern bag. This constituted 
the warrior’s entire commissariat. Meats he was expected to kill by the way. The 
burthen was so light that it did not at all impede walking or running. When it was 
designed to use it, a small portion was mixed with water. It could not be eaten clip. 
The quantity of water might be enlarged, agreeably to the needs of the warrior. It 
was then, in fact, a species of soup; and the strength given by a single gill of the 
meal was sufficient for the day. 

The piola of the Mexicans is a substance similar to that described above. It is 
parched com well ground, and seasoned with sugar and spices. A gill of it per day is 
sufficient to keep a man alive. 


Plate 16 


finches by 5 

f&iSSSjg2& 


6 inches by ti 



Pcquea Hatchet, 


bk inch by 2 


Fu 11 siz e 

Found near Washington,!). C. 


Drawn by Cap 4 S .Eastman,U.S.A . 


Lith Printed (r Coi 11 J T Bowen.Phil 


AXES. 























' 



'll 



ANTIQUITIES. 


81 


9. Akeek, or Ancient Cooking Pot. 

In a state of nature, boiling is performed sometimes by casting heated stones into 
bark vessels filled with water. One of our tribes, (the Assinoboins,) has been named, 
it is averred, from this custom. The Micmacs and Souriquois, and some other 
extreme northern tribes, boiled in this manner. The southern and south-west and 
midland tribes, from the earliest notices of them, possessed a species of kettle made 
from pottery, the art of making which was carried northward up the Mississippi 
Valley and to the great lakes. The Atlantic and New England tribes, whose traditions 
point south-west, had also, at the earliest recorded dates, a species of pottery, shreds 
of which are found at the sites of the oldest villages. 

This article was extensively used among the Algonquin tribes, by whom it was 
called Akeek —a word which appears to have been composed from Akee, earth, and the 
generic ik, denoting something hard or metal-like. It was made of common clay, or 
clay-earth, tempered with feldspar, quartz, or shells. Sometimes the common black 
earth of alluvial lands was used by tribes in the South and West, and when so, sands 
or pounded shells were taken as the tempering ingredient. There was, generally, 
a ready adaptation to this purpose of the aluminous or other materials of the country 
possessed by the tribes. Thus the Florida tribes, who possessed rich black soils at 
the margins of their rivers, and an abundance of shells, made their vessels of these 
materials; while those tribes living on the banks of the Potomac, Delaware, and other 
Atlantic rivers, extending quite to the Penobscot, employed the different strata of 
clays which are to be found along those streams. 

In the Mississippi Valley, there is also evidence in the remains of their pottery, of 
a better ware, formed of the mixed aluminous deposits of its tributaries. 

As a general remark, the pottery was a ruder and coarser fabric, as the tribes 
migrated north. It was essentially with these tribes, an art of the women, who, by a 
natural law of the division of labor among hunter tribes, were responsible for the 
preparation for the board of the viands taken in the chase by the men. As a 
consequence, the potters’ art, which fell into their division, did not advance, but 
continued stationary at a point, where it had at first been taken up. Among the 
Iroquois, a very warlike people, it was considered peculiarly the women s art, 1 and 
there is every reason to believe that it was thus considered by the Algonquins, 
Dacotas, and other generic tribes. 

The finest and most compact species of pottery, is seen in their funereal vases and 
their pipes, which do not, however, equal the terra cotta. Even in the best specimens 


11 


Notes on the Iroquois. 





82 


ANTIQUITIES. 


which have come to our notice, such as the specimens from the small sacrificial 
mounds of the Scioto, it falls far short of the quality of the Aztec ware, and 
infinitely so of the highly-wrought and superb fabrics of Peru. 1 

The akeek, (Plate 22, Fig. 1,) to which this article is particularly devoted, is in 
shape very nearly a globe, with one side opened and turned out as a lip* It has in 
no instance a foot. It may be used as in a sand-bath, or by a string around the lip, 
which is attached to a tripod, as seen in Plate 22, Fig. 2. 

The only entire specimen of the northern akeeks which has been examined, was 
obtained in a cave on an island in the river St. Mary’s, Michigan. It is deposited 
in the cabinet of the New York Historical Society. 2 (See Fig. 1.) 


10. Discoidal Stones. 

Games of various character have attracted the Indian tribes from the earliest 
notices we have of them. Some of these games are of a domestic character, or such 
as are usually played in the wigwam or domicil. Of this kind are the game of hunting 
the moccasin, the game of the bowl, and sundry minor games known to the Algonquins, 
the Cherokees, and other tribes. But by far the greater number of games practised 
by the North American Indians are of an athletic character, and are designed to 
nourish and promote activity of limb, and manual expertness in the field, or on the 
green. Such are their various ball plays, and wrestling and running matches, which 
whole tribes are assembled to witness and participate in. To run swiftly; to fend 
adroitly with the baton; to strike or catch ; to lift great weights; to throw stones ; to 
shoot darts; to dance with spirit; and, in short, to exhibit any extraordinary feat of 
agility, strength, or endurance in mimic strife, has ever been held to be among the 
principal objects of applause, especially in the young. It is, indeed, in these sports 
that the elements of war are learned; and it is hence that excellence in these feats is 
universally held up to admiration in the oral recitals of the deeds of their heroes and 
prodigies. Manabozho excelled in his superhuman and god-like feats, and killed the 
mammoth serpent and bear-king. Papukewis could turn pirouettes until he raised a 
whirlwind, and Kwasind could twist off the stoutest rope. These things are related 
to stimulate the physical powers of the young; and there is not a tribe in the land, 
whose customs we know, of whom it is not a striking trait to favor the acquisition of 
skill in games and amusements. 

Among these field sports, the casting of stones is one of the most ready and natural 
traits of savage tribes. With such accuracy is this done, that it is astonishing with 
what skill and precision an Indian will hurl stones at any object. 


1 Proceedings of the Northern Antiquarian Society. 

2 Notices of some Antique Earthen Vessels found in the Tumuli of Florida, &c. N. Y., W. Van Norden. 1846. 




Plate 14- 



Ifaawnty CaptEastman LT. S A. Ackei man iuMO BroadwayN Y 

ARROW HEADS. 


















































ANTIQUITIES. 


83 


The numerous discoidal stones that are found in the tumuli, and at the sites of 
ancient occupancy, in the Mississippi Valley, serve to denote that this amusement was 
practised among the earlier tribes of that valley at the mound period. These antique 
quoits are made with great labor and skill, from very hard and heavy pieces of stone. 
They are, generally, exact disks, of a concave surface, with an orifice in the centre, 
and a broad rim. A specimen now before us, from one of the smaller tumuli at 
Grave Creek Flats, in the Ohio Valley, is wrought from a solid piece of porphyry. 
It is three and a half inches in diameter, with a thickness of one and five-tenths 
inches. The perforation is half an inch, and the rim, forming the disk, a small 
fraction under the same. 

The object of hurling such an instrument was manifestly to cover an upright pin or 
peg driven into the ground. Whether, like the ancient Greeks, in hurling their discus 
a string was used to give additional velocity and direction to its motion, cannot be 
stated. 

These ancient instruments are of various sizes, but all unite in the same principles 
of construction. One of the specimens observed at the same locality is one and four- 
tenths inches in diameter. The following sketch (Plate 23, Figures 1 and 2) is an 
accurate copy of the larger specimen we have described, of the exact size. Figures 
3 and 4 represent the smaller ones, and it is supposed were made for children’s use. 

11. Funeral Food—Vase. 

The idea of placing food in or near the grave, to serve the departed spirit on its 
journey to the fancied land of rest in another world, is connected with the ancient 
belief in a duality of souls. This idea is shown to exist among the present tribes of 
the United States. 1 One of these souls is liberated at death, but the other is compelled 
to abide with the body; and it is to provide for this, that a dish or vase of food is 
deposited generally at this day, not in the grave, to be buried with the corpse, but 
under a close covering of barks erected over the grave. 

The ancient Indians placed this food in a vase of unglazed pottery, in the grave. 
This pottery, as disclosed by graves, is of a dark color, and consists of clay and shells 
slightly baked. The vase is generally small, sometimes not more than six inches in 
height, but varying from nine to ten; it is seldom more. It is uniformly without a 
foot, and with the lip slightly turned, and externally ornamented. The ornaments 
are impressed on the vase in its soft state, and unpainted. 

Nearly every ancient Indian grave that has been opened in the State of Ten¬ 
nessee, has one of these ancient vases, or “crocks,” as they are popularly called. 
Their use can hardly be imagined without adverting to this ancient custom. 


Vide Oneota, or the Indian in hie Wigwam. 




84 


ANTIQUITIES. 


The small burial mounds of Florida, along the Gulf coast, are literally filled with 
these antique vases. These places of sepulture are locally denominated “feasting 
mounds,” from an evident impression that the ancient vases were dedicated to some 
purpose of this kind. It appears to be a peculiarity in those found near the Appala- 
chicola, as observed by Mr. Hitchcock, 1 that the bottom of each vase is pierced with 
a small orifice broken in. In a specimen recently forwarded by Mr. Buckingham 
Smith, from an island in the Everglades of Florida, it is impossible to decide, from the 
broken fragments, whether this custom holds good. But it coincides in its make and 
material, with the specimens from Appalachicola now in the antiquarian collections 
of the New York Historical Society. 

A specimen of this vase in a good state of preservation, was obtained from an 
antique grave in Ohio, by Dr. A. Crookshanks, in 1844, agreeing in its character with 
those of Florida. It is entire. The material, — a dark-colored, micacious clay, — is 
tempered with shells. It bears the evidence, as to all the specimens examined, of 
being made by hand. It is unglazed. 

Another specimen of the funereal vase was obtained by Mr. Hosmer, from an antique 
grave opened on the banks of the Genesee River, in New York. 

The late Dr. Douglas Houghton obtained fragments of the same species of ware, 
from some ancient works existing in Chatauque County, New York. This locality 
is near the village of Fredonia, but a little distance from the banks of Lake Erie. 
Dr. Houghton found at the same place, and made of the same material, the fragment 
of a small but curious clay image, which was ornamented with a head-dress resembling 
very accurately the skin of a bear’s head; the nose pointing directly in front. 

The great extent of country over which the vases prevail, denote the general preva¬ 
lence of the custom at the ancient era of these graves, and of the mounds and earth¬ 
works which exist. The following drawing, (Plate 27, Fig. 3,) which may serve as a 
type for all, size excepted, is executed from a specimen obtained in Florida. 


12. Coin, oe its Equivalent. 

The discovery of America caused a total revolution in the standard of value among 
the Indian tribes. Exchanges among them had been adjusted to a great extent, by 
articles in kind. Among the northern tribes, skins appear to have been a standard. 
A beaver skin long continued to be the plus, or multiple of value. But however 
general this standard might have been, it is certain that among the tribes seated 
along the north Atlantic, some varieties, or parts of species of sea-shells, under the 
names of peag, seawan, and wampum, became a sort of currency, and had the definite 


Proceedings of the New York Historical Society. 






Plate 21 




STONE PESTLE AND COPPER CHISEL 


































i 



1 













Plnt.e2T 


cocIbna POT ANJJ VASE 




Adcermfl'il.iilr W i;'i 


.Drawn by I’apt- Eastman II. S A 























ANTIQUITIES. 


85 


arithmetical value of coin. In New England a string of wampum consisted of a 
definite number of grains, the whole of which was worth five shillings. At Manhattan 
and Fort Orange, it appears from ancient documents on file in the State Department 
at Albany, as stated by Dr. O’Calligan, that about 1640, three beads of purple or blue 
wampum, and six of white wampum, were equivalent to a styver, or to one penny 
English. It required four hundred and fifty beads to make a strand, which was 
consequently valued at $1.50. At a subsequent period, four grains of sewan made a 
penny. Purple wampum was made from the Yenus mercatorius, while the white 
was taken from the pillar of the periwinkle. 

In opening ancient graves in Western New York, this ancient coin has been found 
in the shape of shell-beads, some of which are half an inch in diameter. The same 
article has been disclosed by the tumuli, and graves of the West. It has also been 
taken from the plains of Sandusky, and from the locations of Indian graves near 
Buffalo, and north of the Niagara river in Canada. It is at these localities precisely the 
same article. Not less than seventeen hundred of this shell coin were taken from a 
single vault in a tumulus in Western Virginia. It has sometimes been improperly 
called “ivory” and “bone.” It is of a limy whiteness and feel, from the decomposi¬ 
tion of the surface, and requires care to determine its character. But in every 
instance it is found to yield a nucleus of shell. 

Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Plate 24, in the subjoined print, exhibit this- article in its 
several sizes. 


13. Balista, ok Demon’s Head. 

Algonquin tradition affirms, that in ancient times during the fierce wars which the 
Indians carried on, they constructed a very formidable instrument of attack, by 
sewing up a large round boulder in a new skin. To this a long handle was tied. 
When the skin dried, it became very tight around the stone; and after being painted 
with devices, assumed the appearance and character of a solid globe upon a pole. 
This formidable instrument, to which the name of balista may be applied, is figured 
(Plate 15, Fig 2) from the description of an Algonquin chief. It was borne by 
several warriors, who acted as balisteers. Plunged upon a boat, or canoe, it was 
capable of sinking it. Brought down among a group of men on a sudden, it produced 
consternation and death. 

14. Medaeka, ok Amulets. 

Charms for preventing or curing disease, or for protection against necromancy, were 
the common resort of the Indians; and they are still worn among the remote and 
less enlightened tribes. These charms were of various kinds; they were generally 


86 


ANTIQUITIES. 


from the animal or mineral kingdom, such as bone, horn, claws, shells, steatites, or 
other stone of the magnesian family. 

The Indian philosophy of medicine greatly favored this system of charms. A large 
part of their materia medica was subject to be applied through the instrumentality of 
amulets. They believed that the possession of certain articles about the person would 
render the body invulnerable ; or that their power to prevail over an enemy was thus 
secured. A charmed weapon could not be turned aside. The possession of certain 
articles in the secret arcanum of the gush-Jce-pi-td-gun, 1 or medicine sac, armed the 
individual with a new power; and this power was ever the greatest, when the posses¬ 
sion of the articles was secret. Hence secresy in the use of their necromantic medi¬ 
cines was strictly enjoined. There was a class of charms that might be thrown at a 
person, and the very gesticulation, in these cases, was believed to be enough to secure 
efficacy. The mere thrusting of a Meda’s sac towards an individual was deemed to 
be efficacious. A beam of light was often sufficient, in the Indian’s eyes, to be charged 
with the fatal influence. Where the doctrine of necromancy is believed, it is impos¬ 
sible to limit it, and the Medas, who had learned their arts from regular profession in 
the secret chamber of the mystical lodge, formed a class of persons of whom the 
common people were in perpetual fear. The term medaeha, which is applied to this 
class of things, relates to any article worn openly, or concealed about the person, to 
which the doctrine of medical magic might be applied. 

The variety of articles actually worn to ward off evil influences was very great. 
Some form of a sea-shell, manufactured or unmanufactured, was regarded as a common 
protective, or amulet, by most of the tribes. This passion for shells from the sea 
was peculiar. The sea appears to have been invested with mystical powers. It was 
regarded as one of the most magnificent displays of the power of the Great Spirit or 
Deity, and a product rolled up from its depths, colored and glittering, as the nacre of 
oceanic shells, was regarded as bearing some of this great mysterious power. The 
venus mercatorius was thus prized, and various articles of ornament, which they 
deemed sacred, were made from them. Such were the ancient and the modern 
wampum, strings of which were worn about the neck, and delivered as mementoes 
at the ratification of their most solemn covenants. 

Ear-drops and nose-drops were anciently made from shells, and they were worn, 
not merely as ornaments, but as protective. A necklace of the claws of the'grizzly 
or black bear, was supposed to impart some of the powers of the animal. The red 
pipe-stone of the Coteau des Prairies was carved into various ornaments, and worn 
about the neck, or suspended from the ears. It is impossible to tell what form this 
desire might not take among a people whose superstitions were so varied and subtle. 

Articles which had served the purpose of amulets in life were deposited in the 


Algonquin. 



Plate 23. 



Drawn. 7>j Cap 1 S .Iv&stmanII S.Aitttv 


AdKman,XrtP',379Bioa2way l JM X 


DISCOIDAL STOWES AND BLOCK PRINT 







































































- 











































































































• / 
















4fe* 








* . 


* 











'•• l . • • 


































Plate 26 



Drawn tyCap? Eastman U S.A . Admwiiu^'3 7 9 Broadway * 

.SPEAR HEADS 












ANTIQUITIES. 


87 


tomb,—for the Indian futurity is not a place of rest; and the hunter’s soul, in its 
uneasy wanderings, still had occasion for the protecting power of the charm. Hence, 
in opening ancient graves and tumuli, it is found that the amulets to which the 
deceased was attached in life were deposited with the body. 

The subjoined specimens are given from the two periods of post and awfe-Columbian 
antiquities. (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, Plate 25.) 

The antiques of this character, formed from the much-prized sedimentary red pipe- 
stone deposit of Minnesota, are figured in 7, 23, 25, 26, 27, and 28, (Plate 25,) together 
with amulets made from various kinds of stone or bone. In Figures 8, 10, 13, 14,15, 
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, and 23, Plate 25, and Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, Plate 24, 
we observe the change which this passion underwent among the tribes, on the introduc¬ 
tion of various shaped beads of glass and coarse enamel by Europeans, at, and after, the 
opening of the 16th century. Farther evidences of this kind are observed in Figures 
1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate 32, under the guise of metallic rings, distributed by the early 
missionaries. These specimens were obtained in the area of the ancient French colo¬ 
nization, in Onondaga, New York. 


15. Antique Javelin, or Indian Shemagon or Spear. 

This antique implement was one of the most efficacious, in close encounters, before 
the introduction of iron weapons. 

A fine specimen of it was brought to me, at Michillimackinac, in (August) 1837, by 
a noted chief, called Mukons E-wyon, or the Little Bear Skin, of the Manistee river 
of the northern peninsula. The following is a facsimile of it. (Plate 26, Figure 2.) 
The material is of a yellowish chert. It is seven inches long, and one and a half 
wide at the lower end, which is chipped thin to admit the splints by which it .was 
fastened to the staff. 

The length of the pole or staff could only be conjectured, and was probably five 
feet. The chief said, on presenting it, that it was one of the old implements of his 
ancestors. 

Figures 1, 3, 4, Plate 26, are facsimiles of several fine specimens of spear-heads, 
now in possession of the National Institute, Washington, D. C. 


16. Aishkun, or Bone Awl. 

Men’s and women’s clothes were before the discovery made of skins, or dressed 
leather. It was necessary to the formation of garments for the body and legs, and 


88 


ANTIQUITIES. 


shoes for the feet, that some hard and sharp instrument should be employed, capable 
of readily penetrating the skin or leather. The method of the ancient species of 
sewing of our tribes, resembled that of a modern cordwainer rather than of a 
seamstress or tailor. Leather, dressed or undressed, being the material to be put 
together, this was accomplished by making holes in the edges of the garment or skin, 
and pushing through these the ends of deer sinews, or other fibrous integument. For 
this purpose the small and compact end of a horn, which is called aishkun by the 
Algonquins, was taken. Sometimes a rib bone, and at others the tibia of animals, was 
used. These articles are still employed for this purpose, for coarse work, among the 
remote tribes. These awls were of various sizes, as shown in figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 
Plate 27. 

The metallic needle is one of the articles supplied to these tribes by civilization. 
Sewing and the seamstresscal art, is an incident of high civilization. 

17. Bone-Shuttle. 

In making their mats or rude lodge-tapestry, and other coarse fabrics, the aborigines 
employed an instrument of bone, of a peculiar construction, which has the properties 
of a shuttle. It was designed to introduce the woof in preparing these fabrics, as 
they did, from rushes and other flexible materials used for the purpose. The art was 
rude, and of a kind to fall into disuse, by the coast tribes, as soon as European 
manufactures were introduced. It is therefore, when found in opening graves, &c., a 
proof of the ante-European period. 

One of these antique implements, herewith figured, (Plate 28, Fig. 1,) was disclosed 
about 1835, in opening an old grave, in the course of some excavations which were 
undertaken within the enclosure of Fort Niagara, N. Y. This grave must have been 
older than the origin of that fortress, the foundations of which were laid by La Salle 
among the Seneca Iroquois, in 1678. 

This instrument is constructed of finely polished bone. It is ten and a half inches 
in length, perfectly round, about one eighth of an inch in thickness, and has a double 
barbed head one and a quarter inches in length. Between the barbs, is a mouth or 
slit, which would enable it to carry the thread across and through the warp. The 
instrument is slightly curved, probably owing to the difficulty of finding one of so 
fine a quality, perfectly straight. 

18. Ice Cutter. 

All the tribes of high northern latitudes employ, at the present day, a chisel of iron 
of peculiar construction, during the winter season, to perforate the ice of the lakes 
and rivers, for the purpose of fishing and taking beaver. This instrument replaces in 












-- Pla-te 27 

J 4 ~ --------- 



Petjuea Indian 
Com Cracker. 


Dxa.-wo. "by S.PastmaiL.lJ S_A. . Li th .Printed & Col^ by J. T. Bowen,Phil. 



9 




AWLS, ANTIQUE MORTAR AND CORN CRACKER 























fzzU- size 


Time n 



r 


Drawn, by Cap$ Eastman U S.Ans \j 


Ackerman litl 1 579 Broadway N.Y. 


BONE SHUTTLE ANT) INSTRUMENTS FOR TWINE MAKING 


f 


}'al/ sate 












ANTIQUITIES. 


89 


the history of their customs, a horn, which their ancestors used for the same purpose. 
The practice prevails particularly among the lake tribes, who rely much on fish for 
their subsistence, and reaches so far south as N. latitude 40°, and as far inland as the 
streams and waters become permanently frozen. 

The ancient horn consisted of a single prong of the antlers of the deer or elk. 
This was tied firmly to a handle of wood, four or five feet long. We should not know 
of this ancient instrument, were it not that the natives call at our government shops 
for an iron chisel, to perform the same office. 


19. Reed, for Rope or Twine Making. 

We can refer to no period of their traditions, when the Indian tribes were destitute 
of the art of making twine, and a small kind of rope. Although they had not the 
hemp plant, there were several species of shrubs spontaneously produced by the 
forest, from the inner bark of which they made these articles. They fabricated 
nets for fishing, which are referred to in their ancient oral tales. To tie sticks or 
bundles, is one of the oldest and simplest arts of mankind; and the verb to tie has, 
therefore, been selected by some philologists, as one of the primitives. 1 It is, however, 
a compound, consisting of a thing and an ac£, in all the Algonquin dialects known 
to us. 

The process of twine and rope making, from the barky fibre of certain plants, it 
appears, was one connected with some kind of machinery. From the species of stone 
reed that is found in some of their tumuli, whose object was, to hold the strands or 
plies apart, it is probable that a wooden instrument, having the properties of a rope- 
maker’s hand-windlass, was employed to twist them together. Yet if this was not 
done, — and we have no evidence that it was, — the reed would afford some facilities 
for hand-twisting. 

We have two remains of this instrument. The first was found in the upper vault 
of the great Grave Creek Mound. It is six inches in length, with two orifices for the 
twine, one and three-quarter inches apart, and tapering from the centre, where it is 
one and two-tenth inches broad, to half an inch at the ends. Thickness, three-tenths 
of an inch. Figs. 4 and 5, Plate 28, is a fac-simile of it. 

The material of this instrument, examined in the dim candle-light of the rotundo 
which existed under this mound in 1844, could not be satisfactorily determined. It 
was of a limy whiteness, rather heavy, and easily cut. If a metal, covered deeply 
by a metallic oxide, which it resembled, that fact could not be determined without the 
application of tests, for which no opportunity was afforded. 


1 Yide letter of the late Mr. Gallatin, issued by Mr. Barbour, Sec. of War, 1824. 


12 





90 


ANTIQUITIES. 


The other specimen of this antique instrument before us, (Figs. 2 and 3, Plate 28,) 
is two-tenths of an inch less than six inches in length, one and one-tenth wide in the 
middle, gently curving, to one and five-tenths at the ends. It has two orifices for the 
twine, half an inch apart. Thickness two-tenths of an inch, nearly. It consists of 
a piece of striped silicious slate. It is accurately carved. It was disclosed in one of 
the ancient but smaller mounds of the Grave Creek Flats. 


20. Antique Mortar. 

This instrument was used by the aborigines of this continent, for crushing the zea 
maize, and for reducing quartz, feldspar, or shells, to a state which permitted it to be 
mixed with the clays of which their pottery was made. The first use is best exem¬ 
plified by the excavated block of stone, formerly and still employed by the Aztecs, 
for making tortillas. 

Of the mortar for pounding stones to temper their pottery, a specimen is herewith 
figured, (Figs. 6 and 7, Plate 27.) This ancient implement, which is double-chambered, 
was discovered by the writer in the Seneca country, in the vicinity of Buffalo city — 
the ancient De-o-se-o-wa of the aborigines. It consists of a heavy and angular block 
of the cornutiferous limestone of Western New York. 

Fig. 8, Plate 27, is a corn-cracker of the Paquea Indians. It is of very hard stone, 
and was found on the Potomac. This specimen is in possession of the National Insti¬ 
tute, at Washington, D. C. 

21. Stone Block-Prints. 

The Islanders of the Pacific Ocean fabricate a species of cloth, or habilimental 
tapestry, from the fibrous inner bark of certain trees. This bark is macerated, and 
extended into a comparatively thin surface by mallets of wood or stone. When the 
required degree of attenuation has been attained, the pieces are dyed, or colored with 
certain pigments, or vegetable concoctions, known to them. To impart regularity 
to the patterns, blocks or prints are applied. The coloring is wholly external; in no 
instance, of many specimens examined, does it extend through, or on both sides of the 
bark. A proof entirely conclusive that it has not been dipped, or immersed in a vat. 
It is not easy to determine whether a mordant has been used to set the dye or 
decoction. From several specimens from the Owyhee, or Sandwich Island group, 
herewith figured, (in Plate 30, Figures 4, 5, and 6,) which have been deposited in 
our cabinet for upwards of twenty years, the coloring matter appears to be quite 
permanent. It has, at least, resisted the rays of light, with but little change, during 



Drawn by Cap 1 S.Eastman/U. S.A . Lith. Printed &. Col 4 by J.T.Bowen,Phil 


BLOCK PRINTS AND FLESHING INSTRUMENTS. 
























































































. 

Plate 30 


Diawnty Caf^S.Easbnaji-U.S.Aniiy ' ' AcWnmiiljATSIS^oaiw^-HY 

■ SPECIMEN OE CLOTH FROM SANDWICH ISLANDS 




















ANTIQUITIES. 


91 


that period; but it must be remarked that the specimens have been protected, a part 
of the time, in drawers. It will be observed that the yellows and blacks have endured 
best. A carmine-red has endured tolerably; a light brick-red exhibits no change. 

From a specimen of this Polynesian bark now before us, it appears to possess an 
alkaline property, which gives it some of the qualities of felt. It is fibrous and 
tubercular. Long keeping, in a dry place, has developed spongy spots. 

This art of cloth-making for summer garments' appears to be confined to the tribes 
of Polynesia; but the natives of Mexico and Peru, who had the cotton plant, perhaps 
the mien kwa of the Chinese, and made garments from it, used the block-print to figure 
it. Traces of this art appear recently to have been found among the antiquities of 
the Mississippi Yalley. 

One of these blocks, herewith figured in Plate 29, Figs. 1 and 3, was disinterred 
from a mound in the city plot of Cincinnati in 1841. It is described and figured in 
the second volume, page 195, of the Western Pioneer. It is a stone, whose species is 
not described. 

Another was discovered by the writer, in the collection preserved in 1844, at the 
great mound of the Grave Creek flats, ahd is figured in Plate 23, Fig. 5, and described 
in the first volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, page 
400. It was found in one of the minor mounds of those flats. It is a species of 
yellowish sandstone. 

22. Fleshing Instrument, or Stone Chisel. 

It is known that in skinning an animal, there will always remain some parts of the 
flesh and integuments to the skin. With a hunter, the operation of skinning is often 
done in haste, and when there is ever so much leisure, still the fear of cutting the 
skin, induces the flayer rather to infringe upon the carcase than endanger the value 
of the hide. 

In the hunter state of society, it becomes the duty of the women to dress and 
prepare the skins taken in the chase. For this purpose, the skins are stretched in the 
green state on a frame, and the flesh and integuments are cleanly removed. This was 
done in the early times, by means of an instrument of stone, which has often been 
mistaken for a small axe. It is a species of hand chisel, blunt that it may not cut 
the skin, and yet of sufficient edge and hardness to permit a stout jerking blow. It 
was grasped firmly by the top. It required no crease, as if to bind it. It was often 
very rude, and presented nothing but an elongated stone, small, and brought to a 
blunt edge. 

By this means, the skin of the deer and other animals was completely rid of its 
adhering flesh, prior to the process of currying, braining, smoking, or such other 
processes as it required to fit it for the various uses to which it might be devoted. 


92 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Two figures of the instrument are added. Figure 5, Plate 29, was picked up, in 
1818, on the Missouri shore, on the high ground above the Chain Rocks. It is a fine 
porphyry, and exhibits much labor bestowed in rubbing it down. Figure 6 is from 
the banks of the Ohio, at the Grave Creek Flats. It is a silicious slate. 

Another specimen of this instrument is seen in Plate 11, Fig. 4. 


23. Antique Indian Knife. 

Yarious substances have been used to supply the purpose of a metallic knife. The 
Peruvians and the Aztecs, at the epoch when the Spanish appeared among them, 
employed obsidian — a species of volcanic rock which exists in the Andes and the 
Cordilleras. Specimens of this article have been found in the western barrows, where, 
however, it seems most probable they came by traffic. We may suppose, in other 
instances, that tribes displaced along the Gulf shores brought them to new locations. 

Generally our United States tribes employed flint, chert, horn-stone, or some other 
form of the silicious class. The first wants of society are easily supplied. Teeth are 
a primitive resource in savage nations, and any accessible hard and sharp substance 
comes next. It is well attested that the Appalachian tribes, who all lived in the 
latitudes of the cane, used that very hard and durable substance to fabricate knives. 


24. Ancient Stone Bill, Pointed Mace, or Tomahawk. 

The pointed mace, found in the early North American graves and barrows, is 
uniformly of a semi-lunar form. It appears to have been the Cassetete or head- 
breaker, such as we can only ascribe to a very rude state of society. It was employed 
by warriors prior to the introduction of the agakwut and tomahawk. All the specimens 
examined have an orifice in the centre of the curve for the insertion of a handle. Its 
object was to penetrate, by its sharp points, the skull of the adversary. This was 
not done by cutting, as with the agakwut or mace, but by perforating the cranium by 
its own gravity, and the superadded force of the warrior. In an attack, it must 
have been a powerful weapon. 

A specimen (Figure 1, Plate 11) obtained through the intervention of F. Follett, 
Esq., from a small mound on the banks of the Tonawanda, near Batavia, N. Y., is of 
the following dimensions. Length, eight inches: breadth, one and a half inches: 
thickness, about one and a quarter inches. 

The material is a neutral-colored silicious slate, exquisitely worked and polished. 
Its weight is half a pound. 

Another specimen (Figure 2, Plate 11) from Oakland county, Michigan, has both 







'Drawn (jyCap? APastataa iJ.SAnnjr 

COPPER WRIST BANDS. 


A Jarman,! rtk r 27.9BroaJway!l "V 


Hate'31. 

















Plate H2 




























ANTIQUITIES. 


93 


the lunar points slightly broken off, yet it weighs six and a half ounces. It is of the 
same material, but striped. It is, in all respects, a stouter instrument. 

The use of this instrument, as well as the antique spear or shemagun, mark an era 
prior to the discovery. 


25. Copper Arm or Wrist-Bands. 

The antique specimens of this part of personal decoration, which are furnished by 
graves and tumuli, do not differ essentially in their mechanical execution, from similar 
productions among the remote tribes of this day. They are simple rings or bands of 
the metal, bent. There is no union of the bent ends by soldering. Oxidation has 
nearly destroyed them, in the mound specimens which have come to our notice. In 
the specimens, (Plate 31,) exhumed from the western part of Virginia, at the 
Great Tumulus of Grave Creek Flats, a salt of copper, apparently a carbonate, was 
formed upon the metal in such a manner as to protect it from further oxidation. 

The use of this metal appears to have been very general by the American tribes at, 
and prior to, the era of the discovery; and the occurrence of the ornaments in 
graves and tumuli may be generally set down to that era. 

The fur trade, which immediately succeeded the arrival of the first ships, soon 
replaced this rude ornament, by bands and bracelets of silver, or silvered copper and 
tin. The passion for silver, in all its manufactured forms, was early developed among 
the tribes. They regarded it as a nobler metal than gold. The name for gold, in 
all the languages known to us, is a modem descriptive phrase, signifying yellow 
metal. It would appear, that gold is not a product of the countries or islands from 
which the tribes originated. 


26. Anomalous Objects of Art and Custom. 

There was found, on opening some of the minor mounds of the Ohio Valley, a 
species of tubes, carved out of steatite, which attracted attention. These tubes 
appeared to have been bored by some instrument possessing a degree of hardness 
superior to steatite. One end was entirely open; the other had a small aperture, as 
if it had been intended to facilitate suction, by a temporary rod and valve. Speci¬ 
mens of these are figured in Plate 32, Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. 

The same district of country disclosed, by its tumuli, large masses of the silvery kind 
of mica, which may, from its small perforations, have been designed for ornamenting 
ancient costume. See Plate 30, Figs. 1, 2, 3, Other mounds of the same region 
contained a very thick and heavy species of pottery, which seemed, from its frag- 



94 ANTIQUITIES. 

ments, to have been employed for saline kettles, or some metallurgic operation. (See 
Plate 34, Figs. 2 and 3.) 

A singular species of amulet, apparently, was used by the Potomac tribes; see Plate 
16, Fig. 6, which is drawn from a specimen in the National Institute. 

Hollow bones of birds were employed for a species of baldric by the ancient Indians. 
They were of various lengths, reaching to three inches, and were bound around the 
body by a cord passing through them. (See Plate 33, Figures 3, 4, 5.) These articles 
were taken from the ossuaries at Beverly, in Canada. 

In the same location were deposited what appear to have been walking-canes, 
having the twist of a vine about them, and domestic utensils of wood; all of which 
are, however, now completely mineralized. (See Plate 33, Figures 1 and 2; and 
Plate 19, Figures 1 and 2.) 

In some of the low mounds of Florida were discovered the fragments of an utensil, 
the purpose of which appears to have been the preparation of some liquid, or drink, 
which required to be ceremonially poured out, without the possibility of the contents 
being spilled and lost. (See Plate 34, Figure 1.) 

Local Manitoes. —The superstitions of the existing race of Indians are evinced by 
their frequently selecting curiously wrought boulders of rock, called /Shin-ga-ba-was- 
sins by the Algonquins. These boulders have the essential character of idols. They 
mark the supposed locality of some god of the air. They are sometimes distinguished 
by the use of pigments. (See Plate 12, Figure 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.) They are generally 
imitative water-worn masses, upon which no chisel or labor of any kind has been 
employed, except by the addition of Indian pigments. Plate 74 is supposed to repre¬ 
sent the Gitchy Kenabec, or Great Serpent, of their mythological and allegorical 
fictions. 

Figures 6 and 7, Plate 33, represent an antique implement of pottery, with a 
singular rugose mouth, of which it is not easy to form a definite opinion. 

Figure 6, Plate 23, represents a curious antique, the use of which has puzzled con¬ 
jecture, found in a tumulus in the Ohio Yalley. It is formed from a very hard and 
compact species of slate-coal, and the material differs only, in this respect, from the 
common product of the Pittsburg coal-basin. 

Figure 3, Plate 11, appears to have been a coal-chisel. 

Figure 5, of the same plate, is manifestly a form of antique pipe. 

In Figures 2 and 3, Plate 21, we behold two drawings, in two positions, of a large 
and well-made copper chisel, found in 1828 in a grave in the Straits of St. Mary’s, 
which connect Lake Superior with Lake Huron. Its manufacture from the native 
copper, which is now being so extensively explored in the basin of the former lake, 
cannot be questioned. 


Plate 83 



vatyCai 1 PdLStmaBt 1 A. AteftffliitttfS^Broadwav N.Y. 


BALDRIC1,S OF BONE AND ANTIQUE POTTERY 































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FRAGMENTS OF ANTIQUE POTTERY 




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F. ATTEMPTS IN MINING AND METALLURGY. 


1. General Remarks. 

2. Ancient Copper-Mining in the Basin of Lake Superior. 

3. Vestiges of Ancient Mining in Indiana and Illinois. 

4. Vestiges of Ancient Mining in Arkansas and Missouri. 

5. Antique Mining in California. 

1. A State of incipient society appears to have existed among the people who erected 
fortifications and mounds in the Mississippi Valley, which led them to search for the 
native metals lying on the surface of the country, and, in some instances, buried 
within its strata, or inclosed in veins. Such traces have been discovered, at intervals, 
over a very wide area. They extend from the mineral basin of Lake Superior in a 
south-western direction towards the Gulf of Mexico. The most striking traits of 
ancient labor exist in the copper districts of Michigan. There are some vestiges of 
this kind in the Wabash Valley. They appear also in Missouri and Arkansas, where, 
by the accumulation of soil, the works appear to be of a very ancient date; and, if we 
are not misinformed, such indications reappear even in California. Native copper and 
native gold seem to have been the two chief objects of search. 

The state of art, denoted by this character of remains, does not appear to be raised 
beyond that which may be supposed to be required by the first and simple wants of a 
people .emerging from the hunter state. There is no evidence that they understood, 
or undertook the reduction of earthy ores. Hammers, wedges, and levers, generally 
of a rude kind, appear to have been the mechanical powers employed to disintegrate 
the rock. These incipient arts will be best illustrated by the detailed notices. 

Care is required in examining and applying archaeological proofs of this nature, 
1. That the state of the art be not overrated. 2. That a false era be not fixed on. 
3. That a due discrimination be made in the objects of search, as whether they were 
metallic or saline. 

It is important not to confound the earliest researches by the Spanish and French 
with those due, clearly, to the mound-builders. 


2. Ancient Copper Mining in the Basin of Lake Superior. 

The copper-bearing trap rock of Keweena Point, Lake Superior, runs, in a general 
course, west of south-west, crossing the Keweena lake, and afterwards passing about 
ten miles distant from the open shores of the main lake. This range crosses the 

(95) 


96 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Ontonagon river about ten to twelve miles from the mouth. At this point, and 
chiefly on location Number 98 under the new grants, are found extensive remains of 
pits, trenches, and caves, wrought by the aborigines in ancient times, of which the 
present Indians know nothing. 

These remains first appear on the Firesteel river, but in following the copper veins 
west to the Minnesota location, being Number 98 above named, they are more fully 
developed. There are three, and sometimes four, of these ancient “ diggings” on veins 
which are parallel to each other, extending three or four miles. These veins are 
about nine hundred feet above the lake. They are very regular, pursuing a course of 
about north 70°, east, with a dip north, 20° west. 

An observer, in September, 1849, speaks of these remains, which he had contem¬ 
plated with great interest and curiosity, in the following manner: 

“It is along the edges or out-crop of these veins that the ancients dug copper in 
great quantities, leaving, as external evidences of their industry, large trenches, now 
parily filled with rubbish, but well defined, with a breadth of ten to fifteen feet, and 
a variable depth of five to twenty feet. In one place the inclined roof, or upper wall 
work, is supported by a natural pillar, which was left standing, being wrought around, 
but no marks of tools are visible. In another place, east of the recent works, is a 
cave where they have wrought along the vein a few feet without taking away the top 
or outside vein stone. The rubbish has been cleared away in one spot to the depth 
of twenty feet, to the bottom of the trench, but the Agent is of opinion that deeper 
cuts than this will be hereafter found. When he first came to the conclusion, about 
eighteen months ago, that the pits and trenches visible on the range were artificial, he 
caused one of them to be cleaned out. He found, at about eighteen feet in depth, 
measuring along the inclined face or floor of the vein, a mass of native copper, sup¬ 
ported on a cobwork of timber, principally the black oak of these mountains, but 
which the ancient miners had not been able to raise out of the pit. 

The sticks on which it rested were not rotten, but very soft and brittle, having been 
covered for centuries by standing water, of which the pit was full at all times. They 
were from five to six inches in diameter, and had the marks of a narrow axe or 
hatchet about one and three quarter inches in width. 

They had raised it two or three feet by means of wedges, and then abandoned it on 
account of its great weight, which was eleven thousand Jive hundred and eighty-eight 
pounds , (11,588,) or near six tons. 

The upper surface had been pounded smooth by the ‘ stone hammers ’ and mauls, of 
which thousands are scattered around the diggings. These are hard, tough, water- 
worn pebbles, weighing from five to fifteen pounds, or even twenty pounds, around 
which in the middle is a groove, as though a withe had been placed around it for a 
handle, and most of them are fractured and broken by use. Besides these mauls 
there has been found a copper wedge, such as miners call a ‘ gad/ which has been 


ANTIQUITIES. 


9T 


much used. Under the mass of copper, and in almost all the works lately opened, 
there are heaps of coals and ashes, showing that fire had much to do with their 
operations. 

With these apparently inadequate means they have cut away a very tough, compact 
rock, that almost defies the skill of modern miners, and the strength of powder, for 
many miles in a continuous line, and in many places in two, three, and four adjacent 
lines. 

The great antiquity of these works is unequivocally proven by the size of timber 
now standing in the trenches. There must have been one generation of trees before 
the present since the mines were abandoned. How long they were wrought can only 
be conjectured by the slowness with which they must have advanced in such great 
excavations, with the use of such rude instruments. 

The decayed trunks of full-grown trees lie in the trenches. I saw a pine over three 
feet in diameter, that grew in a sink-hole on one of the veins, which had died and 
fallen down many years since. Above the mass raised by Mr. Knapp there was a 
hemlock tree, the roots of which spread entirely over it, that had two hundred and 
ninety annual rings of growth. These facts throw the date of the operations now 
being unveiled back beyond the landing of Columbus, and consequently behind all 
modern operators of our race. 

The skill which is shown, and the knowledge of the true situation of veins, as well 
as the patience and perseverance necessary to do so much work, all prove that it was 
the performance of a people more civilized than our aborigines. 

It is reasonable to suppose that they were of the era of the mound builders of Ohio 
and the Western States, who had many copper utensils. This metal they must have 
obtained either here or at the South-west, towards Mexico; perhaps in both directions. 

The successors to the Minnesota Company have sunk a shaft about forty feet on the 
vein above the great copper boulder; over to the west, and about one hundred and 
forty feet from it, another shaft near sixty feet in depth, and have connected them by 
an adit. 

The average width of the vein is four feet, extending to eight feet in places. It 
has well-defined walls, and is filled with quartz, epidote, calcareous spar, and copper. 
The copper exists in strings, sheets, nests, and masses, sometimes across the vein, 
sometimes on one side, and sometimes on the other. The thickest sheet I saw was 
two and a half feet. 

When we consider that the ancients, who went through the tedious process of beating 
and mauling away the rock here, found copper enough to compensate them for years, 
perhaps centuries, of labor, the richness of these mines, prosecuted with our means 
and knowledge, can scarcely be exaggerated. I should have mentioned a copper 
chisel, with a socket for a wooden handle, which has also been found, about five inches 
long and one and a quarter inch wide. 

13 


98 


ANTIQUITIES. 


These discoveries throw all the old explorations of the French and English on Lake 
Superior into the back-ground. The Indians have no knowledge of the works I have 
been describing, although the second chief of the Fond du Lac band is understood 
to claim that his family have had the chieftainship more than seven hundred years; 
and he gives the names and ages of his ancestors back to that period. The people 
who wrought them must have cultivated the soil in order to sustain themselves. 
What did they cultivate ? It is here, doubtless, that many of the silver ornaments 
found in the mounds of the South-west were obtained, for the copper contains scat¬ 
tered particles of that metal. 

It is recorded that the Egyptians had the art of tempering copper so as to cut stone 
as well as wood, and that their great stone structures were wrought with tools of 
copper only. I have been told by a person who has seen the Egyptian stone-cutters’ 
tools preserved in the British Museum at London, that there are some very much like 
those found here. 

We have already copied from a Western paper an account of the remarkable 
discovery of a mass of pure copper, near the Ontonagon River, Lake Superior, in the 
course of explorations last spring. This mass has since been cut up into manageable 
pieces of three thousand to four thousand pounds each, and thus hauled to the Lake 
and shipped to this city, and two or three of them may now be seen in front of the 
store 239 Water-street. They are richly worth a short walk to any one not already 
familiar with the notabilities of the copper region. 

This mass was found on the location of the Minnesota Company, of this city, in the 
process of exploring an old open cut or aboriginal digging, which was discovered by 
the appearance of a slight depression on the surface of the ground. In the bottom of 
this cut, covered by fifteen feet of earth in which were growing trees fully five hundred 
years old, lay this mass of pure copper, weighing eleven thousand five hundred and 
thirty-seven pounds, with every particle of rock hammered clean from it, supported by 
skids, and surrounded by traces of the use of fire either in the hope of melting it or to 
aid in freeing it from the rock. Near it were found several implements of copper, 
showing that the ancient miners possessed the arts of welding and of hardening copper 
—arts now unknown. It would seem that they failed in their attempts to break up 
this immense boulder, or to lift it out of the cut; but it may be that their efforts were 
suspended by reason of war, of pestilence, famine, or some other general calamity. 
This may have been thousands of years ago. The works of the old miners may be 
traced for two miles on this vein, and on other veins in the vicinity for a considerable 
distance. They evidently were ignorant of the use of iron, and worked very 
awkwardly. 

The locality of these developments is the cluster of hills known as “The Three 
Brothers,” two miles east of the Ontonagon, about twelve miles up that stream 
(twenty by water,) and some three hundred feet above the level of the Lake. There 


ANTIQUITIES. 


99 


are three large and rich veins here within a short distance of each other, at least one 
of them rich in silver. The vein which the Minnesota Company is now opening is 
about eight feet wide, though of unequal richness. The mineral is a native copper 
diffused through the rock. The Minnesota is working some thirty hands this winter, 
and preparing to prosecute its enterprise still more vigorously next spring.” 

The era of these ancient operations must have preceded the occupation of the 
country by the present families of the Ojibwas and Dacotahs; for the simple reason, 
that none of the various bands of these two generic nations preserve any traditions 
respecting them. 

It is not necessarily to be inferred, that very great numbers of men were employed 
on the works, at the same time. It is more natural to suppose that the works are 
due to the labors of successive parties of miners, during a long epoch. 

Neither does the working of the mines necessarily presuppose a high state of civi¬ 
lization. The mechanical powers of the wedge and lever were employed, precisely 
as we should suppose", a priori, they would be, among rude nations. 

One of the most powerful means of operating on stones and ores among the abori¬ 
ginal tribes, was fire and water. These were employed alternately, to disintegrate the 
hardest rocks. And it is apparent, that after removing the superincumbent soils, 
these were the most efficacious agents used here in pursuing veins. 

In looking for the era when these works were in the most active state, we may 
suppose it to have been coincident with the time of the greatest amount of population 
in the Ohio and Mississippi Yalleys. The mound-builders, and also the roving tribes 
of the West, had many uses for copper. It was, in fact, the copper age. They made 
a species of axes and chisels of it, for mechanical purposes. It was also extensively 
used for bracelets, for tinkling ornaments, such as are appended to the leather fringes 
of warriors’ leggings and back dresses. It is a metal much esteemed by all the tribes, 
at the present day, and all our testimony is in favor of its being held in the same 
regard by the ancient tribes. We find it, along with sea-shells, bone beads, pendants, 
and other antique articles, in the largest tumuli of the West. It is one of the chief 
things found in our antiquarian works and mounds, over about eighteen degrees 
of latitude, which is the length of the Mississippi, and a longitudinal area, reaching 
from the Rocky Mountains to the sea-coast of New England. 

It is apparent, that the ancient Red miners of Lake Superior supplied the demand, 
in its fullest extent. They probably received in exchange for it, the zea maize of the 
rich valleys of the Scioto and other parts of the West; the dried venison and jerked 
buffalo meat of the prairie tribes; and sea-shells of the open coasts of the Atlantic 
and Gulf. It is not improbable, indeed, when we examine the rocky character of 
much of the Lake Superior region, and the limited area of its alluvions and uplands, 
which appear ever to have been in cultivation, that parties of various tribes performed 
extensive journeys to this upper region, in the summer season, when relieved from 

L OF C, 


100 


ANTIQUITIES. 


their hunts, to dig copper, that it was a neutral territory; and having supplied their 
villages, in the manner the Iowa and Minnesota Indians still do, in relation to the 
red Pipe-stone quarries of the Coteau des Prairies, returned with their trophies of 
mining. 

No tribes, indeed, whose history we know or can guess, possessed civilized arts to 
sustain themselves in this latitude during the winter solstice. The shores of the lake 
yield neither wild rice, nor Indian corn. They did not anciently cultivate the potato. 
They depended upon game and fish, and it is only necessary to have passed a single 
winter in the lake latitudes, to determine that a large body of miners could riot have 
been kept together a long time for such a purpose, without a stock of provisions. On 
the contrary, as the theatre of summer mining, in a neutral co.untry, or by self-depen¬ 
dent bands, hundreds of years may have passed in this desultory species of mining. 


3. Vestiges of Mining in Indiana and Illinois. 

In the deep alluvial formation on the banks of Saline river, vessels of pottery, 
which appear to have been used in boiling saline water, have been raised from great 
depths. On visiting the site, in 1821, 1 there appeared, on examination of such facts 
as could be got, no doubt that these were to be regarded as evidences of their having 
been used in the evaporation of saline waters. That the native tribes did not make 
salt is well known; and this discovery of subterranean boilers of clay is presumptive 
evidence, one would think, that the work is due to Europeans, or some other civilized 
race. But if so, the country must have had the elements of a foreign population 
before the deposition of the Illinois alluvions of the lowest altitudes. 

Indiana was visited by the French from Canada early in the seventeenth century. 
Vincennes was founded in 1710. 2 Several vestiges of attempts to mine, as well as 
other archaeological data, appear in the Wabash Valley, of which we have been 
promised some account. It is important to preserve these notices, whatever value 
may be attached to their age. Personally, we are not disposed to assign a remote 
age to these labors : nor do they appear to denote a very high metallurgic knowledge, 
although that knowledge mav be deemed of foreign origin. 


Vestiges of Ancient Mining Operations in Arkansas 
and Missouri. 

In descending the Unicau, or White River, from its sources in the Ozark hills of 
Arkansas and Missouri, in the early part of the winter of 1819, my attention was 


1 Yide Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley. 


2 Law’s Hist. Discourse. 




ANTIQUITIES. 


101 


arrested by several features of ancient occupancy; some of which denoted an attention 
to mining. These vestiges of occupancy, at an antique period, consisted of the 
remains of a town site; of bones, apparently calcined, and of pottery, which appeared 
to have been used in saline, or metallurgy operations. These remains, in the White 
River Valley, were all seated above the present site of Batesville. The Arkansas 
papers have since, during the building of the town of Little Rock, published an 
account of an ancient furnace discovered about A. D. 1838, under the soil, and of 
kettles of pottery. 

A high antiquity has been claimed for these latter remains, without offering, 
however, any conclusive data, which have come to our notice, that they are not of an 
early Spanish or French era. The whole western banks of the Mississippi were 
ransacked early in the 16th century, under the delusive hope of finding gold and silver. 


5. Evidence of Ancient Mining Operations in California. 

It was late in the month of August, (the 19th,) 1849, that the gold diggers at one of 
the mountain diggings called Murphy’s, were surprised, in examining a high barren 
district of mountain, to find the abandoned site of an antique mine. “It is evidently,” 
says a writer, “the work of ancient times.” 1 The shaft discovered is two hundred and 
ten feet deep. Its mouth is situated on a high mountain. It was several days 
before preparations could be completed to descend and explore it. The bones of a 
human skeleton were found at the bottom. There were also found an altar for worship 
and other evidences of ancient labor. Strong doubts are expressed whether the mine 
will bear the expenses of being re-opened. 

No evidences have been discovered to denote the era of this ancient work. There 
has been nothing to determine whether it is to be regarded as the remains of the 
explorations of the first Spanish adventurers, or of a still earlier period. The 
occurrence of the remains of an altar, looks like the period of Indian worship. The 
facts should be properly examined, with a view to their historical bearing. Such 
examinations, if carefully conducted, may enlighten us in the nationality of the 
ancient people whose relics we here behold. 

By another notice in the papers now submitted, it will be observed that remains 
of mining have been also recently discovered on Lake Superior, in addition to those 
before mentioned. Other parts of the country may afford similar evidences, and the 
facts from different latitudes deserve to be generalized. It is a duty we owe to 
archaeology, to put on record every discovery of this kind. In no other manner can 
the knowledge of this branch of history be advanced. We have too long wandered 
in the mazes of conjecture. A complete archaeological survey of the country should 
be executed. 


Private Corr. 




G. OSSUARIES. 


Some of the North American tribes had an ancient custom of wrapping their dead 
in bark and skins, and placing them in some elevated position above ground, till the 
flesh was decayed, and completely separated from the bones. This was often done by 
depositing the corpse in a tree; or if it were a village site, on a species of scaffold. 
In these situations, the bodies were protected from carnivorous animals. Tribes that 
lived in districts of country abounding in caves that might be closed, placed their 
corpses sometimes in these caves permanently. But several of the forest and lake 
tribes of ancient eras, where these advantages could not be secured, were found to 
place their dead in the positions indicated, above ground, till complete decomposition 
had supervened; when a general and final interment of the bones could be made. 

There are traditions, that it was the duty of a certain class of men, called some¬ 
times, “ bone-pickers,” to attend to this solemn and pious task; and that it was done 
periodically, at intervals of time fixed by them, or denoted by custom. The tribe was 
called upon, when an individual died, to unite in his obsequies. His bravery, wisdom, 
strength, or skill in war, hunting, or council, were then recited, and the lamentations 
publicly celebrated. The eulogy then pronounced was final, and not renewed at the 
general interment. 

This is the origin of those ossuaries, or trenches of human bones, which have been 
occasionally found in clearing up and settling the forest. The localities of such bone 
trenches and vaults, were universally on elevated grounds, where water from the 
inundation of rivers, or any common source, could not overflow or inundate the bones. 
A custom of this kind may be supposed to intervene, in the history of nations, between 
that of burning the body, — which is still practised, we are told, among the Tacullies 
of British Oregon, or New Caledonia, 1 —and that of immediate interment, which is so 
generally practised. Such a custom could not be systematically continued, by a people 
who were not permanently established in a country, or who, at least, were subject to 
be driven away by the inroads of furious tribes. And it is known to have fallen into 
disuse by most, perhaps by all, the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains, since the 
discovery and settlement of the country. 

One of these ancient ossuaries, which speaks of a bygone age, and probably an expa¬ 
triated people, exists on an island of Lake Huron, called Isle Ronde by the French, 
and Minnisds by the Algonquins. My attention was first called to it in 1833, on 
making a visit to it, and examining its antique places of sepulture. The village 
formerly existing on this island, appears to have been abandoned about seventy years 


Harman's Travels. 


(102) 























































































































6i mi 





# 



* 















ANTIQUITIES. 


103 


ago, when the present fort of Michillimackinac was transferred from the main land at 
the apex of the peninsula of Michigan, to the island bearing this name. On 
approaching this site, and before reaching it, my attention was struck by a quantity 
of dry, and very white human bones, scattered on the shore. On landing, it was 
perceived that the action of the waves from the south-west against the pebbly diluvial 
plain, had exposed the end of one of these ancient ossuaries. There were bones from 
every part of the human body. They were traced to a trench or vault, on the level 
of the plain, where similar remains were observed to extend for several yards to a 
depth of three or four feet. In no instance were the bones of a complete skeleton 
found lying together, in their natural position. They were laid in promiscuously. 
The leg and thigh bones a^fpeared to have been packed or corded, like wood. 

The state of the bones denoted a remote antiquity. None but the smaller and 
vesicular parts appeared to have decayed. The trees were all of secondary growth, 
and the ground had the appearance of once having been cleared. I inquired of an 
aged Ottawa Indian, without receiving much light. He said they were probably of 
the era of the human bones found in the caves of the island of Michillimackinac. 

Having satisfied my curiosity, I proceeded to the grave-yard, or ancient burial-place 
of the former village on the island—not a hundred yards distant. Here the interments 
had been made in the usual manner, each skeleton occupying a separate grave. I 
opened several to determine this fact, as well as to verify the era of the interments. 
In one grave there was found a gunlock, and a fire steel, both much oxydated, and 
other articles of European manufacture, denoting the palmy times of the fur trade. 

Ten years after these examinations, I visited a very celebrated discovery of Indian 
ossuaries at Beverly, twelve miles from Dundas, in Canada West. This discovery had 
been made about 1837, and had produced much speculation in the local papers, and 
many visits from antiquaries and curiosity hunters. The site is an elevated beech- 
tree ridge, running from north to south. The trees appear to be of the usual age and 
mature growth, but standing at considerable distances apart. The ossuaries are formed 
invariably across this ridge, and consequently extend from east to west. I examined 
a deposit which measured eight feet by forty, and six feet deep. It was an entire 
mass of human crania, leg, thigh bones, &c., in the utmost confusion. All ages 
and sexes appeared to have been interred together. It appeared to have been laid 
bare, and dug over for the purpose of obtaining the pipes, shells, and other relics with 
which it abounded. Ten or eleven deposits of various sizes existed on the same ridge 
of land, but preserving the same direction. These were not, however, all equally 
disturbed by the spirit of finding relics, but this spirit had been carried to a very 
blamable extent, without eliciting, so far as I learned, any accurate or scientific 
description of these interments. 

Among the articles obtained in the before-mentioned excavations, I insert drawings, 


104 


ANTIQUITIES. 


(Plate 35, Figures 1 and 2,) of the full size of two species of sea-shells, the P. spirata 
and P. perversa; four species of antique clay-pipes, (Figures 5 and 6, Plate 8, and 
Figures 1 and 3, Plate 9); a worked gorget (Figure 3, Plate 19) of sea-shell, of which 
the original nacre of red is not entirely gone; five specimens of curious opaque-colored 
enamel beads, (Figures 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, Plate 24); three baldrics of bone, (Figures 
14, 15, and 16, Plate 24); four of opaque glass twisted, (Figures 12, 13, 14, and 20, 
Plate 25); eight different sized shell beads, (Figures 17, 18,19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24, 
Plate 24,) and eight amulets of red pipe-stone, (Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, and 11, 
Plate 25); three of shell or bone, (Figures 7, 23, and 25, Plate 25); three of bears’ 
teeth, (Figures 26, 27, and 28, Plate 25.) 

Figures 8, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, and 24, Plate 25, are minor specimens of 
glass or enamel. 

Figures 25 and 26, Plate 24, are human teeth, used as ornaments. 

There is abundant evidence that the practice of forming public ossuaries had been 
continued after the arrival of the French in 1608. The shells are such as must have 
been derived from traffic with the southern or western Indians. The pipes are of an 
antique and peculiar pattern, and were employed without stems : in this respect they 
correspond with the antique pipe from an ancient grave at Thunder Bay, Michigan, 
and also, it is thought, with certain pipes mentioned by Professor Dewy as found at 
Fort Hill, Genesee Co., N. Y. 1 The shell beads are of the same kind, precisely, as 
those which were discovered in the Grave Creek Mound, Virginia, as described in the 
first volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society. 2 By the 
decay of the surface of the shell, which constituted their inner substance, they 
appear to he of the same age. 

The amulets of red pipe-stone consist of bored square tubes, of the peculiar sedi¬ 
mentary red rock existing at the Coteau des Prairie, in the territory of Minnesota; 
and are identical, in material, with the cuneiform pieces of this mineral, which were 
dug at the foot of the flag-staff of old Fort Oswego, N. Y. 3 

The colored enamel beads are a curious article. No manufacture of this kind is 
now known. They are believed to be of European origin, and agree completely with 
the beads found in 1817, in antique Indian graves, at Hamburg, Erie Co., N. Y. 4 

The ancient Indians, before the introduction of European manufactures, formed 
baldrics for the body from the hollow bones of the swan and other large birds, or 
deers’ bones, in links of two or three inches long. These were strung on a belt or 
string of sinews or leather. It is believed that the relics figured are of this kind. 


1 Notes, on the Iroquois, p. 205, 2d Edition. E. Pease & Co., Albany, 1847. 

2 New York, Bartlett & Welford, 1835. 

3 Notes on the Iroquois, p. 237, 2d Edition. E. Pease & Co., Albany, 1847. 

4 Second Part of Lead Mines of Missouri. N. Y. 1819. 




Plate .^4. 



\ 





Drawn by Capt Eastman U.S A. 


AdcermaiiLjft r J7SBroa(iway NT 









COIN. BEADS. 

















'•vV 









' ' • ' 
















- 
















' 









' 

■ 




























































/ 

















































; 















i 







! 

































Plate 25 



Dra.wn'by CaptlastmanU. S.Anny. 


Ackerman 1 .iOlT 37 y BroadwayN Y'. 


AMULETS AND. BEADS 




































AN TIQUITIES. 


105 


There were also found copper bracelets, analogous, in every respect, to those 
disclosed by the mounds and graves of the West. These relics denote a period of wide 
exchange, and great unity of manners and customs, among the ancient Indians. They 
link in unison the tribes of Canada, Western New York, the Mississippi Valley, and 
the Great Lakes. They indicate no art or degree of civilization superior to that 
possessed by the present race of Indians. They give no countenance to the existence, 
in these regions of a state of high civilization. 


14 


H. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES THAT THE CONTINENT 
HAD BEEN VISITED BY PEOPLE HAVING LETTERS, 
PRIOR TO THE ERA OE COLUMBUS. 

1. Ancient Inscription on the Assonet, or, so called, Dighton Rock. 

2. Antique Inscription found in one of the Western Tumuli. 

3. Devices on a Globular Stone of the Mound Period, found in the Ohio Valley. 

4. Tradition of an Ancient Shipwreck. 

5. Skeleton in Armor. 

That America was visited early in the tenth century by the adventurous Northmen 
from Greenland, and that its geography and people continued to be known to them so 
late as the twelfth century, is admitted by all who have examined, with attention, the 
various documents which have been published, during the last twelve years, by the 
Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen. There are evidences which 
every candid and right-minded historian will admit, that the hardy and bold mariners 
of Scandinavia, of that period, crossed freely, in vessels of small tonnage, the various 
channels, gulfs, and seas of the Northern Atlantic, and were familiar with the general 
islands and coasts stretching from Iceland to the northern parts of the continent. 
They visited from Greenland, not only the adjacent coasts of what are now called 
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, but held their way to more southerly latitudes, which 
they denominated Vinland,— a term that is, by an interpretation of the sea journals 
and nautical and astronomical observations of those times, shown, with much proba¬ 
bility, to have comprised the present area of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They 
appear to have made attempts to plant a colony in this area. 

Finding the trending of this land to favor the spirit of adventure, they ran down 
to more southerly latitudes; reaching, it is thought, to near the present site of St. 
Augustine, in Florida; the bays of New York, Delaware, and Chesapeake, not 
appearing, however, to have attracted notice. It is certain that their primitive maps 
of this part of the coast, as published at Copenhagen, bear a name that is translated 
Great Ireland. 

Thus much, the learned of the present day admit. There is no pretence that the 
Scandinavians considered it a new continent, or that they verified any geographical 
theory, by their bold voyages. But these feats had attracted attention at home, and 
the fame of them reached other parts of Europe; for it is known that Columbus 
himself had been attracted by them, and visited Iceland for the purpose of verifying 
what he had heard, and increasing the sum of facts on which his great theory was 
based. 


(106) 


ANTIQUITIES. 


107 


The leading evidences serve to attest that Vinland was the present very marked 
seaboard area of New England. The nautical facts have been carefully examined by 
Professors Rafn and Magnusen, and the historical data adapted to the configuration 
of coast which has Cape Cod as its distinguishing trait. All this seems to have been 
done with surprising accuracy, and is illustrated by the present high state of the arts 
in Denmark and Germany. 

The principal error in the minutiae, from which historical testimony is drawn, 
appears to be in the interpretation of a descriptive monument, found in the area of 
the colony which was attempted to be formed at the head of Narragansett Bay, within 
the chartered limits of Massachusetts. It will serve, probably, to strengthen the 
claim to discovery, by distinguishing, and so abstracting from the consideration of 
this inscription, so much of it as appears to be due to the Indians, and is, manifestly, 
done in their rude pictographic characters; and leaving what is clearly Icelandic to 
stand by itself. This has been done in the following paper, which embraces the 
results of a study by an Algonquin chief in 1839, of the inscription of Drs. Baylies 
and Goodwin, as published at Copenhagen. Chingwauk, the person alluded to, having 
rejected, in his interpretation, every character but three, of the number of those 
which have been generally supposed to be northern, or in old Saxon; and these not 
being essential to the chief’s interpretation, but closely involved with others important 
to the Scandinavian portion; I have restored them to that compartment of the rock. 
Two distinct and separate inscriptions thus appear, of which it is evident that the 
Icelandic is the most ancient. The central space which it occupies could not have 
been left, if the face of the rock had been previously occupied by the Indian or picto¬ 
graphic part. 

That the native Algonquins recorded, on the same rock, and at the same era, the 
defeat of the Northmen, as acknowledged by the latter, by the use of the balista 
described, is hardly probable, yet possible. The inscription was more likely, as is 
shown by Chingwauk, a triumph of native against native; yet it is remarkable, that 
a balista is among the native figures employed. But the circumstance most conclusive 
is the want of European symbols in the right hand side of the inscription relative 
to the defeated enemy. Could it be shown, by archaeological evidence, that swords, 
aats, &c., in this part of the drawing, were used by the invaders, or that hats 
were unknown to Northmen of the tenth century, the objection would be obviated. 
The ceremonial observances of the sachem-priest, Mong, and the attack led by the 
chief, Pizh-u, or Panther, are not inconsistent with Indian theories of mystical influ¬ 
ences, on White or Bed men, known to their religion, mythology, and peculiar 
Manito worship. 

The second paper is founded on the determination of M. Jomard, of Paris, of Libyan 
characters upon one of the tumuli of Western Virginia. To others these characters 
have appeared to be Celtiberic. This is the opinion expressed by Professor Rafn, of 


108 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Copenhagen, in the Memoirs of the Northern Antiquarian Society. This opinion 
was concurred in by the American Ethnological Society. 1 The imperfection, however, 
of the several copies of the inscription heretofore examined, furnishes the occasion of 
presenting a perfect copy, taken from the original stone in 1850. 

Traditions of the other hemisphere, which have been variously urged upon our 
notice, render it desirable to scrutinize our antiquities very closely for evidences of 
early voyages, and we should not be surprised at finding even a Grecian and Persic 
element of an early intrusive population. The increased knowledge of, and attention 
given to, the laws and theories of winds, currents, and temperature,—which must 
have, in early ages as now, much affected the material intercommunication of nations 
navigating the shores, and visiting the islands of the Indian, Pacific, and Polynesian 
seas, — commend that class of facts very strongly to the attention of American 
ethnologists. Trade-winds, monsoons, oceanic streams, like that of the Mexican 
Gulf, and other forms of the laws of motion generated by mere temperature , (for 
both wind and water obey'it,) have had, apparently, a greater agency in settling the 
globe than has been awarded to them. If nations stumbled upon both the Atlantic 
and Pacific shores by accident, the student of races should not wonder. We applaud 
Columbus because he meant to make a discovery. But the veriest tyro must admit 
that he too stumbled upon America in looking for India and China. 


1. Ancient Inscription on the Assonet, or Dighton Rock. 

More importance has been attached to the Dighton Rock inscription, perhaps, than 
its value in our local antiquities merits. This may, it is believed, be ascribed in part 
to the historical appeal made to it, a few years ago, by the Royal Society of Northern 
Antiquarians, at Copenhagen, on the occasion of their publishing the collection of old 
Icelandic sagas, relating to early discoveries in America. It is certain that it was not 
regarded in any other light than the work of Indian hands before that era. There is 
something pleasing to the human mind in ingenious researches, the results of which 
unravel, or merely purport to unravel, mystery in any department of knowledge. 
The interest once felt in the zodiacal stone of Denderach turned upon this principle, 
although its importance to chronology has long since entirely vanished. It was the 
same intense ardor to pry into the unknown, which gave edge to the early discoveries 
of Young, Champollion, and Rossilini in the hieroglyphic system of ancient Egypt. 
That the celebrated stone of Rosetta did not yield an equally barren harvest with that 
of Denderach, in the field of antiquarian letters, may be attributed to the discovery 


1 Vol. I. Transactions. 



ANTIQUITIES. 


109 


of its trilingual character, of which the Greek copy was happily conjectured to he an 
equivalent of the ancient Coptic. 

We have, in our own country, had our interest excited, within a few years, by the 
inscribed stone of Manlins, giving us the date of 1520 as the period of the first ingress 
of European footsteps into the Iroquois territory. A different, but still an historic 
interest arose from the Palladic or Oneota stone, to which the native tradition refers 
as the monumental evidence of the national origin of the Oneida tribe; and, latterly, 
our local antiquities have assumed a still more complicated form by the unexplained 
intrusion of an apparently Celtiberic inscription in one of our larger western tumuli. 
As the Mississippi Yalley has been settled, false religion, basing itself upon the gross 
impositions of the Mormon prophet, Smith, has led to apocryphal discoveries of various 
metallic plates, and, in one instance, of metallic bells, bearing inscriptions which have 
been attempted to be imposed upon the populace as veritable antiquities : but these 
pretended discoveries have been so bunglingly done as not for a moment to deceive the 
learned, or even the intelligent portion of the community. It has been easy, at all 
times, to distinguish the true from false objects of archaeology, but there is no object 
of admitted antiquity, purporting to bear antique testimony from an unknown period, 
which has elicited the same amount of historical interest, foreign and domestic, as 
the apparently mixed, and, to some extent, unread inscription of the Dighton 
Rock. 

As Americans, we are peculiarly susceptible to this species of newly awakened 
interest. It is but the other day, as it were, that we began to look around the 
northern parts of the continent for objects of antiquarian interest. Every thing in 
our own history and institutions is so new and so well known that there has been 
scarcely a subject to hang a doubt upon, and it appears refreshing to light on any 
class of facts which promises to lend a ray of antiquity to our history. The Indian 
race is, indeed, the oldest thing in American antiquity, and they bid fair to take the 
place of the inscribed shaft and undeciphered medal of the old world. It is on this 
account that so long-sustained an interest has been maintained respecting the various 
tumuli and remains of the rude fortifications of the West, of which we must yet 
observe, with due respect to the descriptive labors of our predecessors, that the specu¬ 
lations growing out of them have added incomparably more to the stores of vague 
hypothesis than of sound philosophy. 

The very nascence of our historic and antiquarian literature tends to create a 
distrust of its excellence, and we are prone to grasp at suggestions from the other side 
of the Atlantic, on the remains of ancient art here, as if they were inevitable results 
of the most pains-taking personal and critical examinations on the spot, when, in fact, 
they are sometimes thrown out as a mere alternative of puzzled thought or editorial 
ingenuity. 


no 


ANTIQUITIES. 


A very different spirit and mode of investigation is shown in the several papers of 
the Antiquitates Americana—a work devoted to the early history of the ante-Colum- 
bian epoch. Before the publication of this work, this epoch was nearly an historical 
blank ; and it has taught inquirers how to bring the arts properly forward, to illustrate 
obscure points of history. 

Having devoted attention to the Indian mode of communicating ideas by pictogra¬ 
phy, during several years residence on the frontiers, it will, it is believed, further the 
object which the Copenhagen Society had in view, by separating the pictographic part 
of the figures, represented on the Dighton Rock, from the confessedly Icelandic 
portion, and exhibiting them in separate drawings. This it is proposed to do, in the 
sequel of the present paper. 

The materials I had collected in the West, and the study I had bestowed upon 
them, would have enabled me to take this question up, on my return from the 
frontiers in 1841; but I should not, perhaps, have done so, had not the New York 
Historical Society, in 1846, placed me on a committee for that purpose. 

This trust I executed in the month of August, 1847, taking an evening boat at the 
city of New York, and reaching the thriving town of Fall River or Troy, near the 
mouth of the Taunton or Assonet River in Massachusetts, early the next morning. 
This latter point is some ten miles, by the nearest route, from Dighton Four Corners 
in Rhode Island, directly opposite to which, on the Massachusetts side of the river, 
the rock lies. This distance was passed in an open one-horse buggy, which afforded 
a pleasant view of the state of New England cultivation and thrift, on a rather 
indifferent soil, resting on conglomerate and trap rocks, which support a heavy boulder 
and block-drift stratum. Most of the larger blocks in this part of the country do not 
appear to have been carried long distances from their parent beds, as they are not only 
of unusual dimensions, but without very striking evidences of attrition. This block 
and boulder drift extends to the Massachusetts shore, and beyond the inscription rock, 
which latter is a large angular block of greenstone trap, presenting a smooth inclined 
line of structure or natural face towards the channel. It lies on a large flat in a 
bend of the river, which is quite exposed and bare at ebb tide, but covered with 
several feet of water at the flow, submerging the rock, with its inscriptions. This 
/ diurnal action of the tide must have, in the course of years, tended to obliterate the 
traces of all pigments and stains, such as the natives are generally accustomed to 
employ to eke out their rock-writings, or drawings. The effects of disintegration, from 
atmospheric causes, have probably been less, under this tidal action, than is usual in 
dry situations, but the tide deposits upon its surface a light marine scum, which must 
render any scientific examination of the inscription unsatisfactory, without a thorough 
removal of all recremental or deposited matter. There are other, but far lesser-sized 
boulders and blocks lying on this flat, one of which, near to it, has evidently some 
artificial marks upon it, but being, at the time of my visit, just under water, and much 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Ill 


coated with a fine alluvial scum, its character could not be exactly traced. Similar 
blocks, and ovate boulders of greenstone and other formations, also lie thickly 
scattered on the main land, on each side of the river. One of the boulders of an 
angular character, on the Massachusetts shore was judged to be twenty times the 
dimensions of the inscription block. This feature of the geology assumed a most 
interesting character, but I had not, in a brief visit, assigned myself time to 
pursue it. 

I crossed the river to the rock in a skiff rowed by an interesting lad, called Whit- 
marsh, who was not the less so for a lisp. He had been across the river to the rock 
at an earlier hour the same morning, and had pleased his fancy by drawing chalk lines 
on some of the principal figures, which made them very conspicuous as we approached 
the rock, particularly the quadruped at the lower part of the inscription, (No. 12, 
Plate 36); which he had represented as a deer,— the long upright lines on the rock, 
just above its head, being taken by him for horns; and he told me very unpretend¬ 
ingly, that this figure was originally meant for a deer. The morning tide, which was 
coming in, had reached the feet of this figure, but had not yet covered them, when I 
landed on the rock. The two human figures without arms, (Nos. 26 and 27,) at the 
right of the inscription, (as the observer faces it,) the large figure having the usual hour¬ 
glass shaped body, and on the left (No. 1) of the published interpretation hereafter 
mentioned, and the chief deep lines and curves in the main devices, between these 
figures, in which the several copies of 1790 and 1830 coincide, were plainly traceable. 
The lines drawn in Mr. Goodwin’s plate, on the extreme left of the frontlet-crowned 
figure No. 1, I could not, with any incidence of the light I could command, make out 
or identify, which was probably owing to tidal deposits. The first impression was 
one of disappointment. As an archaeological monument, it appeared to have been 
over-rated. A discrepancy was observed, in several minor characters between the 
copies of Baylies and Goodwin of 1790, and that of the Rhode Island Historical 
Society of 1830; hut few devices were wanting in its essential outlines. The most 
important, in the part which is not pictographic, consists in the lower portion of 
the central inscription, which has been generally supposed, and with much reason, 
to have an alphabetical value. The letters which appear in the Rhode Island 
Historical Society’s copy, as published at Copenhagen, are either imprecise or 
wholly wanting; but there is something in the inscriptive figures upon which to 
found the interpretations which will be mentioned in the sequel. It was a clear, 
bright day, and I varied my position, by movements of the skiff, in front of the 
rock, to get the best incidences of light. It was evident, under all the diffi¬ 
culties of tidal deposit and obscure figures, that there were two diverse and 
wholly distinct characters employed, namely, an Algonquin and an Icelandic in¬ 
scription. 

But before I proceed to state the deductions which are, in my judgment, to be drawn 


112 


ANTIQUITIES. 


from it, I will introduce an interpretation of the pictographic part of this fruitful 
puzzle of antiquarian learning, which was made by a well-known Indian priest or 
Meda, at Michillimackinac, in 1839. Chingwauk, the person alluded to, who is still 
living, is an Algonquin, who is well versed in the Ke-lce6-win, or pictographic method 
of communicating ideas of his countrymen. He is the principal chief on the British 
side of the river at Sault Ste. Marie. He embraced Christianity during some part of 
the period of my residence on that frontier, prior to the time of this interpretation. 
He had previously been one of tbe most noted professors of the Indian Me-da-win, 
which is the name of the professors of the ancient Aboriginal religion. He is also a 
member of the Wabeno Society, which is supposed to be a modern or new phasis of 
it. He is well versed in the various kind of the pictographic figures, by which ideas 
are communicated. He is quite intelligent in the history and traditions of the 
northern Indians, and particularly so of his own tribe. Naturally a man of a strong 
and sound, but uncultivated mind, he possesses powers of reflection beyond most of 
his people. He has also a good memory, and may be considered a learned man, in a 
tribe where learning is the result of memory, in retaining the accumulated stores of 
forest arts and forest lore, as derived from oral sources. He was one of the war-chiefs 
of his tribe, in the perilous era of 1812. He speaks his own language fluently, and 
is still regarded as one of the best orators of his tribe. Attention was perfectly 
arrested by the force, comprehensiveness, and striking oratorical turns, of a speech 
which he delivered, in full council, before the government commissioners at Michilli¬ 
mackinac, in 1836. He had, on another occasion many years before, shown the consi¬ 
derate temper of his mind, by dropping the uplifted tomahawk, which had been raised 
under a hostile chief, called Sas-sa-ba, to arrest an American exploring expedition, on 
their entrance, in 1820, into the, until then, sealed waters of Lake Superior. 

When I first went to reside in the Indian country, in 1822, in an official capacity, 
I observed this man to be expert in drawing the Indian signs and figures; I saw in 
his hands tabular pieces of carved wood, called music-boards, on which were curiously 
carved and brightly painted, in the lines of sculpture, the figures of men, birds, 
quadrupeds, and a variety of mixed and fabulous mythological devices, which were 
said to be the notations of songs. 

Such was the man whom I employed and paid, to be my teacher in unravelling 
these devices, and to instruct me in the several modes of employing their pictographic 
art. Seventeen years had now elapsed, from the time my attention was first called 
to this subject, when the Royal Society of Antiquarians, at Copenhagen, embraced, in 
their publication,—the Antiquitates Americana,—a full series of the several copies of 
the inscription on the Dighton Rock. I immediately thought of my Indian instructor, 
and having taken the volume to Michillimackinac, I despatched an invitation to him 
at St. Mary’s, to visit me during the summer season. I did not deem it prudent to 
run the risk of awakening suspicion, by stating the object of the requested visit. The 


ANTIQUITIES. 


113 


chief complied with my wishes, bringing with him four companions to manage his 
canoe. 

He said that he had come in consequence of my verbal message, and inquired what 
had induced me to send for him. 

I laid before him the volume, opening it at Plaie 12. “You will recollect,” I said, 
“ that many years ago you gave me instructions in the Ke-kee-win of your nation, as 
applied to the Medaiwin and the Wabeno societies. I know you to be well versed in 
this art, and have therefore sent for you to explain this ancient inscription, which has 
puzzled men of learning. You have since this time, 1 know, united yourself to a 
Christian church, and may think such knowledge no longer worthy of attention; but 
it is, nevertheless, a rational curiosity. The figures and devices here shown, have 
been copied from the face of a rock lying on the sea-coast of New England. They 
were noticed at the time that the English first landed and settled there; (1620.) 
They are believed to be very old. Both the inscriptions on this plate (No. 12) are 
copies of the same thing, only one of them was taken forty years before the other. 
The last was taken nine years ago. It is supposed, as the sea rises on the rock twice 
a day, that some of the minor figures may have been obliterated. You will perceive, 
by studying them, in what particulars the two copies differ. Was the inscription 
made by Indians, or by others? What is your opinion?” 

This was the substance of my remarks. No other facts or opinions were revealed. 
After scrutinizing the two engravings for some time, with his friends, he replied : “ It 
is Indian; it appears to me and my friend, to be a Muz-zin-na-bik, (i. e., rock writing.) 
It relates to two nations. It resembles the Ke-ke-no-win-un, or prophetic devices of 
an ancient class of seers, who worshipped the snake and panther, and affected to live 
underground. But it is not exactly the same. I will study it.” He then requested 
permission to take the volume to his lodge, and asked for a candle, that he and his 
companions might study it during the evening. 

The next day he came at the appointed time, with two of his companions, bringing 
the book. His principal aid in this investigation, was a hunter, called by the name 
of Zharba-ties. I had prepared for this interview, by having present the late Henry 
Conner, Esq., the most approved interpreter of the department, in addition to two 
members of my family; all well versed in the Chippewa and English languages. I 
had numbered each figure of the inscription, in order to give precision to the chief’s 
interpretation. 

Chingwauk began by saying that the ancient Indians made a great merit of fasting. 
They fasted sometimes six or seven days, till both their bodies and minds became free 
and light; which prepared them to dream. The object of the ancient seers, was to 
dream of the sun; as it was believed that such a dream would enable them to see 
everything on the earth. And by fasting long and thinking much on the subject, 
they generally succeeded. Fasts and dreams were first attempted at an early age. 
15 


114 


ANTIQUITIES. 


What a young man sees and experiences during these dreams and fasts, is adopted by 
him as truth, and it becomes a principle to regulate his future life. He relies for 
success on these revelations. If he has been much favored in his fasts, and the people 
believe that he has the art of looking into futurity, the path is open to the highest honors. 

The prophet, he continued, begins to try his power in secret, with only one assistant, 
whose testimony is necessary should he succeed. As he goes on, he puts down the 
figures of his dreams or revelations, by symbols, on bark or other material, till a whole 
winter is sometimes passed in pursuing the subject, and he thus has a record of his 
principal revelations. If what he predicts is verified, the assistant mentions it, and 
the record is then appealed to as proof of his prophetic power and skill. Time 
increases his fame. His ke-kee-wins, or records, are finally shown to the old people, 
who meet together and consult upon them, for the whole nation believe in these 
revelations. They, in the end, give their approval, and declare that he is gifted as a 
prophet — is inspired with wisdom, and is fit to lead the opinions of the nation. 

Such, he concluded, was the ancient custom, and the celebrated old war-captains 
rose to their power in this manner. I think the inscription in this volume is one of 
these ancient muzzinabiks. It is old—it was probably done by the ancient Wa-be-na-kies 
or New England Indians. Before the white men came, there were great wars among 
the Indians. 

He said that he had selected the drawing of 1790. Part of the figures appeared to 
have been worn off, and were illegible. It consisted of two parts. If a line were 
drawn across a certain part of the inscription, which he placed his finger on, it would 
not touch any part of the figures. All the figures to the left of such a line would be 
found to relate to the acts and exploits of the chief represented by the key figure, 
Number 1, and all the devices to the right of it had reference to his enemies and their 
acts. 

I drew a line, in pencil, from A to B (See Plate 36) which completely verified this 
discriminating observation. I also drew a line to the left of the key figure, from C to 
D. I had prepared to give exactitude to my numbering of the figures or devices by 
embracing every thing of sufficient value to stand by itself as a symbol or representa¬ 
tive character. 

The inscription, he said, related to two nations. Both were Un-ish-in-d-ba, or the 
Indian people. There was nothing depicted on either of the figures to denote a 
foreigner. There was no figure of, or sign for, a gun, sword, axe, or other implement, 
such as were brought by white men from beyond the sea. There were some things, 
however, which he would mention when he came to them, which did not belong to 
the lce-kee-ioin. 

Number 1, Plate 36, he said, represents an ancient prophet and war-captain. He 
records his exploits and prophetic arts. The lines or plumes from his head denote his 
power and character. 








Drawn "by Cap 1 SEastmmU.S-Amrr: J4m*^l*&**iw*! 

DIGHTOKT ROCK 





























































ANTIQUITIES. 


115 


Figure Number 2, represents his sister. She has been his. assistant and confidant in 
some of his prophetical arts. She is also the Ag-oon-aitrkwaij, or Boon of Success in 
the contemplated enterprise, and she is held out, as a gift, to the first man who shall 
strike, or touch a dead body in battle. 

Figure Number 3 depicts a structure called Wah-gun-aho-beed-je-gun. It is the 
prophet or seer’s lodge. It has several divisions, appropriated to separate uses, marked 
a, b, c. Part a denotes the vapor-bath, or secret sweating lodge, marked by crossed 
war-clubs. The three dots, in the centre of apartment b , denote three large stones 
used for heating water to make steam, and are supposed to be endowed with magical 
virtues, c represents the sacred apartment from which oracular responses are uttered. 
It contains a consecrated war-club, of ancient make, marked d, and a consecrated 
pole, or balista, marked e. 

Figure 4 represents a ponderous war-club, consecrated for battle. Such war-clubs, 
of which figure 35, and e of No. 3, furnish other examples, were anciently made by 
sewing up a round stone in a green skin, and attaching a long pole to it. After 
drying, the skin assumed great hardness, and the instrument, which performed some 
of the offices of a battering-ram, was one of the most effective weapons of attack. 
(See Figure 2, Plate 15.) 

Figure 5. The semi-circle of six dots signify so many moons. The first were con¬ 
tinuous, the others broken or interrupted. They mark the time he devoted to perfect 
himself for the exploit, or actually consumed in its accomplishment. 

Figure 6 is the symbol of a warrior’s heart. 

Figure 7. A dart. 

Figure 8. The figure of an anomalous animal, which probably appeared in his 
fasts to befriend him. 

Figure 9. Unexplained. 

Figure 10. Accidentally omitted in the interrogatories. It is the usual figure for 
a human trunk, drawn transversely. 

Figure 11 represents the number 40. The dot above denotes skulls. 

Figure 12. This is a Symbol of the principal war-chief of the expedition against the 
enemy. He led the attack. He bears the totemic device of the Pizhoo, which is the 
name of the northern lynx. (L. Canadensis.) The same word, with a prefix denoting 
great, is the name of the American cougar, or panther. 

Figure 13. This is a symbol of the sun. It is repeated three times on the inscrip¬ 
tion ; once for the prophet’s lodge, number 3, again for the prophet’s sister, number 2, 
and, in the present instance, for the prophet himself. It is his totem, or the heraldic 
device of his clan. 

Figure 14 represents a sea-bird called Mong, or the loon. It preserves the prophet’s 
name. 

Figure 15. A Pim-me-dctvrlco-nau-gun , or war camp. It denotes the place of ren- 


116 


ANTIQUITIES. 


dezvous, where the war dance was celebrated before battle, and also the spot of 
reassembly on their triumphant return. 

Figure 16. A Sah-sah-je-wid-je-gun, literally, instrument of the war-cry, which is 
an ensign, or skin flag, usually borne by a leading man. 

Figure 17. An instrument used in war ceremonies in honor of a victory, as in 
ceremoniously raising the flag, and placing it in rest after victory, to be left as a 
memento. 

Figures 18, 19, 20, represent dead bodies. They are the number of men lost in 
the attack. 

Figure 21. A pipe of ancient construction, ornamented with feathers. 

Figure 22. A stone of prophecy. It is sometimes employed to determine the 
course a war party should pursue. 

Figure 23. Unexplained. 

Figure 24 has no apparent signification, as a pictographic symbol. 

Figure 25. A wooden idol, set up in the direction of the enemy’s country, and 
within sight of the prophet’s lodge. 


Section of the inscription to the right of the line A. B. 

This group of devices the chief determined to have relation, exclusively or chiefly, 
to warlike and prophetical incidents on the part of the enemy. 

Figures 26, 27. Two prominent human figures, representing the enemy. They 
are drawn without arms, to depict their fear and cowardice on the onset. They were 
paralyzed by the shock, and acted like men without hands. 

Figures 28, 29. Decapitated men, probably chiefs or leaders. 

Figure 30. A belt of peace, denoting a negotiation or treaty. Such belts were 
preserved with great care. 

Figure 31. The enemy’s prophet’s lodge. 

Figure 32. A bow bent, and pointed against the tribe of Mong. This is a symbol 
of preparation for war, and denotes, in this relation, proud boasting. 

Figure 33. Symbol of doubt, or want of confidence in the enemy’s prophet. 

Figure 34. A lance pointing to the enemy. This is a symbol of boasting and 
preparation, and tallies exactly, in these ideas, with the purport of 32. 

Figure 35. An ancient war-club, of the character before noticed in Figure Number 
4. It is here seen that the enemy possess the same effective weapon of assault. 

Figure 36. Has no known significancy. 

Figure 37. Unexplained. 

Figure 38. Does not belong to the subject, or is unknown. 


antiquities. 


117 


Section of the Inscription to the left of the line G. D. 

The chief, who had evinced a marked degree of readiness and precision respecting 
the other parts of the inscription, appeared doubtful when his attention was drawn to 
the purport of this compartment. He said it had been so much defaced that most of 
the marks appeared without meaning. He thought, from what he could understand, 
that it was of a geographical character, and gave it this explanation. It appeared to 
be the territory of the Mong tribe, or confederacy. 

Figure 39, 40. Villages and paths of this people or their confederates. 

Figure 41. Mong’s village, or the chief location of the Assonets, being on the banks 
of a river. It may also represent a skin flag used in the war, and the dance of triumph. 
The first interpretation is given as that to which the chief appeared to attach most 
weight, and as corresponding with his general idea of this portion of the inscription. 

In this interpretation, Chingwauk confined himself strictly to the copy of Dr. Baylies 
and Mr. Goodwin, of 1790 : the reason for this he did not mention. He probably 
found it fuller, giving some details which exist only in trace, or which are quite 
obliterated in the Rhode Island Historical copy. He was fully aware that the two 
drawings of 1790 and 1830 were copies of the same inscription taken at a period of 
forty years apart, and that the inscription was subjected to the action of the tide. 
The observer will notice that the primary and leading symbols, such as 1, 2, 3, 12, 26, 
27, &c., upon which his interpretation turns, are equally plain in both copies. It will 
be further observed, that if numbers of the minor symbols and devices which the chief 
has employed, such as 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c., be wholly dismissed from the consideration of 
the inscription, it would not affect its turning incidents and general purport, as 
explained by Chingwauk. The interpretation would thereby lose some of its details, 
but it would still remain homogeneous, and be in entire conformity with the customs 
and pictorial art of the natives. 

Owing to the probable age of the inscription, and its defacement by elemental action, 
it would require, at this time, a very careful and laborious process of copying it, with 
every appliance of scientific precision, in order to insure accuracy. No such copy, 
answering the highest requisites of exactitude, has, in my opinion, appeared. Nothing 
short of a coffer-dam, to exclude the tide permanently while the copying was in pro¬ 
gress, would appear to meet this extreme requirement of exactness. With such a 
preliminary as the basis of operations, the whole surface of the rock could be impressed 
with a brush, with paper properly prepared, by means of which, inequalities of surface 
and fragmentary lines might be brought out and restored. It would also be desirable 
to submit the face of the rock to the process of the daguerreotype, the focus of 
which should be placed at such an angle as to catch the minutest shades of surface. No 
such process could be undertaken until the surface of the rock had been duly cleansed. 


118 


ANTIQUITIES. 


It will be noticed that Chingwauk has not employed any of the devices which are 
here attributed to a foreign origin, except Nos. 18, 19, 20. These devices resemble 
an hour-glass, or a closed cross. Such a cross is a symbol for a corpse in the northern 
pictography; but it would cease to be so, if it were not closed , as it is drawn in the 
Rhode Island copy. On the contrary, an open cross is the Roman character for ten. 
This question of a closed, or open cross, constitutes the turning point in its value in 
this inscription. 

I called the attention of Chingwauk especially to the character in close proximity 
before Nos. 18, 19, 20, which resembles the ancient C, or sign of one hundred, and 
also to the sign for I, immediately behind them, and to the compound character 
regularly and closely following it, which Mr. Magnusen has interpreted to stand for 
men. He promptly threw them out, saying that they had no significancy in the 
inscription. It would seem by every fair principle of interpretation, that these six 
characters should be construed together. This view derives force from the considera¬ 
tion of the confessedly alphabetical characters below. By throwing Figures 18, 19, 
and 20 out of Chingwauk’s interpretation, his record loses only the adjunct fact of an 
acknowledged loss of three men in the attack, while it restores to the Scandinavian 
portion, what is essential to it. The principles of lithological inscription, as they 
have been developed in ancient Iceland, appear to me to sanction the reference of this 
part of the foreign inscription to that hardy adventurous race, who were confessedly 
early visitors to America. Thus read, the interpretation of this part of the inscription 
furnished by Mr. Magnusen, appears to be fully sustained. Put it in modern 
characters, it is this: CXXXI men. The inscription below is manifestly either the 
name of the person or the nation that accomplished this enterprise. 

The whole question of discovery turns on this. Not Scandinavia only, but 
Phoenicia, Gaul, and old Britain, may be considered as claimants. 

And here it must be confessed, my observation did not enable me to find the 
expected name of “ Thorfin.” The figure assumed to stand for the letters Th. is some 
feet distant from its point of construed connection, and several other pictographic 
figures intervene. If it be not the symbol of an Indian flag, or be thought to have 
a geographical significance, agreeably to the interpretation of Chingwauk, yet its 
admission as the character Th. would not serve to determine the name. The figures 
succeeding the ancient 0 [ O], cannot, by any ingenuity, be construed to stand for 
an F, I, or N. The terminal letter is clearly an X, or the figure ten. The intervening 
lines are all angular, and in this respect have a Runic or Celtic aspect. So far as they 
could, by great care, be drawn, they are exhibited in the presumed Icelandic part of 
the inscription, (Plate 37, Figure A.) 

Future scrutiny of this part of the inscription is invited. 

A precedence has been given, in point of age, to the Scandinavian, over the picto¬ 
graphic part of the inscription. This results, almost as a matter of necessity, from 

















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ANTIQUITIES. 


119 


its central and independent position on the rock. That the hint of the purport of 
such an inscription by foreigners should have been taken at a later period by the 
natives, to record their own traditions, may be accounted for on natural principles. 
Indeed, were there anything on the rock to denote the presence or existence of 
foreigners, in the pictographic part of the inscription, one might suppose that the 
Indians designed to show, by their drawing, the defeat of the very party of the 
Northmen, whose landing here in 1001 is contended for, at Copenhagen, whom they 
are admitted to have driven off. The admission of such a defeat by the invaders, and 
the use of the great war-club or balista, are circumstances in which the Scandinavian 
and Assonet record curiously coincide. 

A full synopsis (Plate 37, Figures 1 to 50) is submitted. The figures on this plate 
coincide with those explained by Chingwauk to 41, and figures a, h, and c, of No. 3. 
The remaining devices appear to be as follows: 

Figure 42 is a character rejected by the Indian expositor, as foreign to the picto¬ 
graphic part. It has been explained by the late Mr. Magnusen, to be an old anaglyph 
for the word men. 

Figure 43 appears to denote warlike implements, of a character suitable to the 
Indian manners and customs. 

Figure 44 consists of two characters rejected by Chingwauk, which are believed to 
stand for the ancient C, one hundred, and 1, a unit. It is upon this rejection, that 
figures 18, 19, 20, inclusive, between them, are transferred to the old northern or 
Icelandic part of the record. 

Figure 45 is a device on the Rhode Island copy, which does not appear on the 
drawing of 1790. It is the representative figure of the trunk of a man, or a headless 
enemy. 

Figure 46 is a fragmentary device of the Rhode Island copy, which corresponds, so 
far as it is perfect, with No. 10.of the drawing of 1790. 

Figure 47 appears to be something raised, as a banner, by No. 27. The lines that 
compose figure 43, appear to have been parts of a device, some essential portions of 
which have become indistinct. 

Figure 49 appears- foreign, and has no significance as a pictographic device, 
agreeably to the papers hereafter introduced. 

This leaves as the Scandinavian portion of the inscription, the figures which are 
denoted in the compartment arranged at the bottom of Plate 37. Of this inscription, 
figures 44, 18, 19, 20, and 44 bis., are to be read, CXXXI. The figure on compart¬ 
ment 23 consists of two devices. The first has been interpreted by Mr. Magnusen, 
(Ant. Amer.) as an ancient anaglyph, standing for the word men. The second figure 
of this compartment is taken from the R. I. C. of 1830. By comparison of this figure 
with the Runic alphabet, it is thought to resemble, though it wants the down stroke 


120 


ANTIQUITIES. 


of the letter aur [ A ], which we are informed was the ancient word for a bow, or 
money. (Yide Marsh’s Gram., p. 162.) 

With respect to the characters which should be inserted after the letters <C> R, in 
the inscriptions of 1790 and 1830, we have felt much hesitancy. There is doubtless 
something to be allowed for tidal deposit, for the obscuration of time, and for the 
want of a proper incidence of light. But with every allowance of this kind, and 
with a persuasion that this part of the inscription is due to the Northmen, it did not 
appear that the characters usually inserted could be assigned to fill this space. Nor 
did it appear that the letter R could be recognised. It is certain that the penulti¬ 
mate character is an X, or less probably the cardinal number 10. Some shadowing 
forth of the intermediate characters is given on the upper margin of Plate 34 ; but 
no positive determination can be made of their alphabetical value. Without doubt, 
the archseologist is here to look for the name of, either the leader of the party, or of 
the nation, or tribe, to which the adventurers belonged. A careful and scientific 
examination of the subject, with full means and ample time, is invited. 

One remark may be added. Examinations have shown that the great forests and 
lake basins of America are not without analogous inscriptions. In the article devoted 
to “pictography,” in the following papers, this subject is treated on the basis of 
personal investigation, and it is believed that the inscriptions which have been copied 
at various points of the interior are such as will commend the subject of the Indian 
symbolic and mnemonic method of inscription to respect. It is a subject that will be 
pursued in subsequent parts of this work. 


2. Notice of an Inscription in Antique Characters, found on 
a Tabular Stone, or Amulet, in one of the Western Tumuli 

OF, PROBABLY, THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

The discovery of an inscription in a large tumulus near Wheeling, in Western 
Virginia, gives an importance to the opening of that mound which it would not other¬ 
wise possess. This archaeological discovery was made, as Mr. Abelard Tomlinson 
the proprietor states, (Yide Western Pioneer) on the sixteenth of June, 1838. The 
country had then been settled fifty-seven years, and had been first explored two years 
earlier. Mr. Jesse Tomlinson, the original proprietor, and uncle of Abelard, had 
carefully guarded it, and prevented any excavations from being made, or any of the 
forest trees, with which it was covered, from being cut. He yielded, at length, to the 
public curiosity to explore its contents, when his nephew, Abelard Tomlinson, entered 
into an arrangement with some other persons to execute the work on a fixed plan of 
excavation. They ran a horizontal gallery into its centre, and sunk a shaft from its 
top to intersect this audit, as represented in Plate 12, Figure 1. 





Section through &, aTe - Cr eelc Moiml 


Fo imd in Wh e eling Valley. 


Full Size. 


Found in S*rraD 
Mo und, Grave, Cr. 











Drawn by Cap* S.Eastman,U.S A. 


Xith. Printed. & Col d by J.T.Bcfwen^Pbil. 















































































■ 
















' 





























ANTIQUITIES. 


121 


To penetrate a tumulus of earth of three hundred and thirty-three feet in circum¬ 
ference, and seventy feet in height, (Plate 5, Figure 2,) with an unbroken surface, 
bearing large trees, was not a light work, and it appears that the labor of several 
hands, for a number of months, was required. 1 The results, which have been recorded 
in the pages of the American Pioneer, Yolume 2d, page 197, were the discovery of 
two rude tombs containing skeletons, and a number of beads, amulets, and shells; but 
nothing indicative of an unusual civilization in the builders of this tumulus, except 
the inscription stone; even if the block-prints, discoidal stones, syphons of steatite, and 
watch-towers, hereafter to be noticed, be thought to denote a higher state of wants 
than the Indian tribes had, they were not the wants of high civilization. Little or no 
importance appears to have been attached to the inscription for several years. 

The men engaged in the work were no archaeologists. It was supposed to be in 
Indian characters, and they are called “ hieroglyphics ” by Mr. Townsend, a writer 
who described the opening of the mound in a letter which was published in the 
Cincinnati Chronicle, a weekly gazette, of Febuary 2d, 1839. He also gave a drawing 
of the inscription. 2 A copy of this paper was transmitted to me by a friend. Having, 
at the same time, a copy of Mr. March’s Grammar of the Icelandic, of 1838, the 
appendix to which contains the Runic alphabet, I observed some corresponding char¬ 
acters. By reference to an inscription from Dr. Plott’s History of Staffordshire, it was 
also seen that there were several of the characters quite identical with the ancient 
form of the Celtic alphabet,.as employed in Britain in the, so called, Stick-Book. A 
copy of the inscription (Townsend’s copy) was transmitted to Professor Rafn, at 
Copenhagen, the distinguished Secretary of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries. 
Mr. Rafn does not find it to be Runic, but is disposed to consider the inscription Celti- 
beric. Memoires de la Societe Royale des Antiquaries du Nord, 1840-1843, p. 125. 

Mr. Abelard B. Tomlinson states, in a letter above referred to, that he commenced 
opening the mound on the 19th of March, 1838; that he wrought at the excavation 
himself; and that he found the first or lower vault on the 4th of April, and the 
second or upper vault on the 16th of June of that year. That the osseous remains 
of two human skeletons in a state of decay, were- found in the first, one of which had 
six hundred and fifty beads, and a small yoke-shaped ornament or implement, with 
two perforations; the other was without any ornament whatever. That the upper 
vault contained the remains of but one skeleton, and a great number of trinkets, 
the chief of which were seventeen hundred bone-beads, five hundred sea-shells, one 
hundred and fifty pieces of mica, five copper wrist and arm bands, and a small flat 
stone, of which he furnishes a fac-simile, page 195, about three eighths of an inch 
thick, with an engraving. 


1 We understand that the estate of Mr. Jesse Tomlinson was charged with $2,500 for this work. 

2 This was subsequently found to have been copied with some material inaccuracies. 

16 





122 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Dr. Samuel George Morton, in his Crania Americana, page 201, publishes extracts 
of a letter from Dr. James W. Clemens of Wheeling, of the general date of 1838, 
in which he describes the opening of the mound, and the various objects discovered, 
without mentioning the inscribed stone, unless it be included in the general term, 
“together with various articles of minor interest,” page 222, Crania Americana. 
It is to be regretted as an historical question, that the precise date of this letter is not 
given. But little interest appears to have been excited by the “stone,” and nobody, 
if we refer to the first accounts, appears to have regarded it as containing alphabetical 
characters. 

Mr. Clemens falls into the popular error of considering the beads as “ivory.” 
They have been found to be formed of sea-shells, (see Transactions of the American 
Ethnological Society, Yol. I.,) and agree in their shape with the ancient wampum 
as disclosed in Western New York and at Beverly in Canada. He also states the 
cortical layers of the large oak which stood at the top of the central part of the 
mound, at three hundred: they are stated by Mr. Tomlinson at about five hundred, 
(Am. Pioneer, page 199.) This appears to be a point of some importance, as by the 
latter statement, we have the date of A. D. 1338, as the era of the abandonment 
of the mound, and by the former, A. D. 1538, or forty-six years after the discovery 
of the country by Columbus. 

De Leon discovered Florida in 1512. 

From the collection of Terneau Campans, the mouth of the Mississippi appears to 
have been discovered in 1527. There would be no inconsistency in supposing that 
some of the followers of De Soto had carried a Celtiberic inscription into the valley 
of the Ohio. 

Dr. Morton (Crania Am., Plate 53) gives a figure of the cranium found in the 
upper vault, from a drawing by Mr. Clemens, and states its facial angle at 78°. This 
cranium has been recently drawn by Capt. S. Eastman, U. S. A., from the original in 
the possession of Dr. De Hass of Virginia, (See Plate 38, Figure 6.) Its posterior 
developments appear to be large, and assimilate it to the Southern type of crania. 

M. Jomard, of Paris, (vide Seconde Note sur une Pierre Gravee trouve dans un anden 
tumulus Americain,) is inclined to deem it an inscription in the ancient Libyan 
language. He had before him, however, but an imperfect copy of the inscription, 
which was transmitted in 1839, by Mr. Eugene Vail; being the copy originally 
published in the Cincinnati paper by Mr. Townsend, which had misled others. 

Dr. Wills De Hass, of Grave Creek, has recently (1850) brought to Washington 
the original stone, a fac-simile of which is given by Capt. S. Eastman, U. S. A. (Plate 
38, Figure 1.) He has also copied its reverse, (Figure 2.) These drawings accurately 
correspond with the copy published by the American Ethnological Society in 1846. 
The same artist has also copied the ancient Celtic inscription before referred to, (Plate 
38, Figure 3); also a curious device, found in one of the minor mounds at Grave 



Plate 38. 



STONES WITH INSCRIPTIONS, AND SKULL FROM CRAVE CREEK MOUND. 
















































MAP 


CO 

CO 




\ 









Drawn. 1 ry S .Eastman TJ S A 

















ANTIQUITIES. 


128 


Creek Flats (Figure 4); and a circular stone, without inscription, but identical in 
material with the inscription stone, (Figure 5.) These facts will enable the reader 
to form his own judgment in the matter. 

Grave Creek Flats appears to have been the site of an ancient Indian town of 
importance. Seven mounds, or their remains, still existed upon these flats in 1844, 
although the plough and the spade had done much to obliterate the smaller ones. 
There were also traces of a large circular work, embracing a part of the public road 
leading north-east to the hills. The relation of these several objects is shown by Plate 
39. After crossing this low ground, there were also traces of a circumvallation on the 
more elevated level grounds; and on rising the hills to Parr’s Point, there was still, 
quite entire and undisturbed, the ruins of a tower or look-out, upon a commanding 
point of ground on the farm of Mr. Mitcheltree. (See Plate 39.) 

This work had been commenced by excavating the earth several feet, and walling 
it up with rough stones, in the manner of a well. From the quantity of fallen stones 
around and within this excavation, this tower must have been many feet above the 
ground. Every one of the stones of which it is composed, must have been carried up 
the acclivity for nearly a mile; as the surface of the hills consists entirely of loam 
and loose soil. 

A corresponding work of a similar character appears to have existed on the apex 
of the hill which forms the opposite banks of the Ohio River, in Belmont County; 
and a defensive work of some extent exists on the high grounds back of this apex, 
but separated from it by a deep ravine. (See Plate 39.) 

To enable the reader to appreciate the relative position of the great mound, and 
the other objects of antiquarian interest in its neighborhood, a plat of the entire 
“flats” is introduced. (Plate 39.) There is also added, a view of the Ohio River, 
taken from the rude observatory which has been constructed at the top of the great 
mound looking to and across the Ohio, into Belmont County. (Plate 75.) 

Plate 29, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, represent a stone block-print and its reverse, found in 
one of the minor mounds in the town of Elizabethtown, on the superior plateau 
of the Grave Creek Flats. This antique object is analogous to a print of the same 
character, found in a mound in Cincinnati. (Plate 23, Fig. 5.) 

Figures 5, and 6, Plate 29, denote porphyry axes; perhaps another form of the 
fleshing instrument, disclosed by the minor mounds of the Grave Creek Group. 

With regard to the inscription, it may be said, if genuine, to be intrusive, and of 
foreign origin. It has belonged to some adventurer, or captive carried by the tribes 
to this spot. Many contend, on what are considered slight grounds, for a comparatively 
high state of civilization in the ancient inhabitants of the West, and adduce their 
architectural ruins, and attainments in fortification, as a proof of it. But, granting 
whatever can be advanced on this head, it would contradict all. our actual knowledge 
on this branch of American archaeology, to admit the possession, by them, at any 


124 


ANTIQUITIES. 


period known to us, of an alphabet of any kind. The characters employed in picture 
writing by the Toltecs and Aztecs, were symbolic and representative, and they have 
left irrefragable evidences of their high proficiency in them: but nothing more. There 
can be no pretence that any Indian race who ever inhabited this valley possessed 
an alphabetic art. The inscription of this tumulus, if it be true, is foreign. The 
question of its genuineness must rest on the veracity of Mr. Tomlinson, and his 
neighbors who have united in his statements. On the score of its being of Iberic 
origin, the account of Dr. Clemens, who is the least favorable to the antiquity of the 
mound, opposes no bar to a foreign theory. Giving, as his facts do, the date of 1538, 
puts it twenty-six years after the discovery of Florida by De Leon, and one year 
subsequent to the discovery of the mouth of the Mississippi by Narvaez. A stronger 
objection is found in the inability of the Copenhagen antiquarians to read it, while 
acknowledging a large portion of its character to be in the Spanish type of the Celtic. 
The following characters are common, it will be seen, to the inscription at Dighton 
Rock and Grave Creek Mound, namely: 0 X I • A still greater amount of resem¬ 
blance to it appears in the “stick-book" character of the ancient British Celtic. This 
is perceived in the characters 0 < I ) A X 'A > which are common to both inscriptions, 
namely, the Celtic and the Yirginic. There would appear to be some grounds here. 
for the Welsh tradition of Madoc. 

We have thus three inscriptions, which appear to have been made in the same 
mixed character, or to have something in common. Elements of an alphabet are 
seen which were known to many nations of Western Europe, and were originally 
derivative from the banks of the Mediterranean, before the introduction of the Roman 
alphabet. 


3. Devices on an Antique Globular Stone, found in the 

Ohio Yallet. 

Every fact relating to asserted inscriptions of ancient date, on this continent, 
requires the closest scrutiny. But we are not at liberty to deny record to any well 
attested report. There was found in one of the group of minor mounds of the Grave 
Creek Flats, in the Ohio Yalley, a small globular stone, about one inch and a half in 
diameter, containing some devices, which resemble those of the inscribed stone 
alleged to have been found by Mr. Tomlinson in the large mound at that place. A 
cast of this stone was presented to me in 1844, during a visit to that place, by Dr. 
Wills De Hass, of which a copy, with its inscriptive matter, is given in Plate 38, 
Figure 4. The characters on this stone appear to be as follows, O A 4 • There 





























































. 













































































































Plate75 










ANTIQUITIES. 


125 


is some eccentricity in the forms of the letters. The first is recognised on the Dighton 
Eock. 

Nothing is more demonstrable than that whatever has emanated in the graphic or 
inscriptive art, on this continent, from the Eed race, does not aspire above the simple 
art of pictography; and that wherever an alphabet of any kind is veritably discovered, 
it must have had a foreign origin. By granting belief to any thing contravening 
this state of art, we at first deceive ourselves, and then lend our influence to diffuse 
error. 


4. An Ancient Shipwreck on the American Coasts. 

Iroquois tradition preserves the account of the wreck of a vessel, in the ante- 
Columbian era, on a part of the Southern Atlantic Coasts, occupied by one of the 
tribes of that ancient and leading stock of men — namely, the Tuscaroras. This 
division of that confederacy then lived in the present area of North Carolina. The 
story is stated by Cusic, in his curious pamphlet of the historical traditions of the Six 
Nations, published at Lewiston, in Western New York, about 1825. Cusic had 
reflected much on the position of the Iroquois in our aboriginal history; and waited, 
it seems, for some one more competent than he deemed himself to be, to undertake 
the task of writing it. But at length he determined to do it himself, and acomplished 
the work with his mind replete with traditions, but with a very slender knowledge of 
the structure of the English language. His ignorance of general chronology, and of 
the very slow manner in which the dialects and languages of the human race must 
have been formed, was profound; and his attempts to assimilate the periods of the 
several Atotarhoes or leading magistrates of that famous league of aboriginal tribes, 
are utterly childish and worthless. Not so with his traditions of events. When he 
comes to speak of the Indian mythology, and beliefs in spiritual agencies, the monster 
period, and the wars and wanderings of his people, he is at home, — and history may 
be said to be indebted to him for telling his own story of these things in his own way. 
So much for Cusic. 

The account of the shipwreck runs somewhat after this manner. While the bulk 
of the Iroquois were yet in the St. Lawrence Yalley, a ship appeared on the coast, 
and was driven southward and wrecked. The natives aided in saving them. The 
adventurers were in leathern bags, and were carried by hawks to an elevation. They 
afterwards went to another situation, where they increased so much as to excite the 
jealousy of the natives. They were finally overrun and eaten up by great monster 
quadrupeds, which overspread the country. 

Stripped of its hyperbole, this story may be supposed to tell, that the mariners were 
dressed in leathern doublets, and owed their rescue from the waters to a tribe called 


126 


ANTIQUITIES. 


Falcons; that they flourished by following the principles of civilization; so as, in 
the end, to excite the enmity of those who had saved them, and that the infant colony 
was exterminated in blood. 

This tradition probably affords a gleam of the lost colony of Virginia, and veils in 
metaphor the treachery and turpitude of the natives. Nothing would comport better 
with the Indian character of concealment, than to have shrouded this act of cruel 
extermination under the figure of the ravages of monsters. The Tuscaroras, who 
relate the event, are known to have been, from the beginning, unfriendly to the whites. 
The terrible massacre which they had planned, and in part executed, against the 
North Carolinians in 1711, was probably a recurrence in their minds of a prior tragedy 
of this kind, which had proved successful. Even if the first Virginia colony, which 
perished at “Croatan,” had been exterminated by the Powhatanic tribes, the 
knowledge of its success may be considered to have been sufficient to inspire the 
Tuscaroras with hopes of like triumph in their own nefarious design. 


ANTIQUITIES. 


127 


5. Skeleton in Armor. 

[The following description of certain human skeletons, supposed to be in armor, found at Fall 
River, or Troy, in Massachusetts, is from the pen of George Gibbs, Esq. It is drawn with that 
writer’s usual caution and archaeological acumen.] 

Some years since, accounts were published in the Rhode Island newspapers, and 
extensively copied elsewhere, stating that a skeleton in armor had been discovered 
near Fall River, on the Rhode Island line. A full description was also published in 
one of our periodicals (it is believed the American Monthly Magazine), and thence 
copied into Stone’s Life of Brant (appx. 19, Yol. 2), in which, from the character of the 
armor, it was conjectured to be of Carthaginian origin — the remains of some ship¬ 
wrecked adventurer. Other theories have been more recently started, in consequence 
of the discoveries of the Northern Society of Danish Antiquaries, and their interpre¬ 
tations of the hieroglyphic figures on the rocks at Dighton and elsewhere, which 
attribute the remains to one of the fellow-voyagers of Thorfin. These speculations, 
however, seem to have been made without any critical examination of the bones 
themselves, or the metallic implements found with them. The discovery, during the 
last summer (1839), of other bodies, also with copper ornaments or arms, led to a 
more particular inquiry, and my informant, who was then at Newport, proceeded to 
Fall River for the purpose of inspecting them. The following description was 
prepared by him from notes taken on the spot, and is to be relied on as strictly 
accurate. It may serve to correct a false impression in a matter of some his¬ 
torical importance, and for that reason only is deemed worthy of attention. 

“ The Skeleton found some years ago is now in the Athenseum at Troy. As many 
of the ligaments had decayed, it has been put together with wires, and in a sitting 
posture. The bones of the feet are wanting, but the rest of it is nearly entire. The 
skull is of ordinary size, the forehead low, beginning to retreat at not more than an 
inch from the nose, the head conical, and larger behind the ears than in front. Some 
of the facial bones are decayed, but the lower jaw is entire, and the teeth in good 
preservation. The arms are covered with flesh and pressed against the breast, with 
the hands almost touching the collar-bone. This position, however, may have been 
given to it after being dug up. The hands and arms are small, and the body 
apparently that of a person below the middle size. The flesh on the breast and some 
of the upper ribs is also remaining: it is of a black color, stringy, and much 
shrunk. The leg bones correspond in size and length with the arms. A piece of 
copper plate, rather thicker than sheathing copper, was found with this skeleton, and 


128 


ANTIQUITIES. 


has been hung round the neck. This, however, does not seem to be its original 
position, as there were no marks on the breast of the green carbonate with which parts 
of the copper was covered. This plate was in shape like a carpenter’s saw, but without 
serrated edges; it was ten inches in width, six or seven inches wide at top, and four 
at the bottom; the lower part broken, so that it had probably been longer than at 
present. The edges were smooth, and a hole was pierced in the top by which it 
appears to have been suspended to the body with a thong. Several arrow-heads of 
copper were also found, about an inch and a half long by an inch broad at the base, 
and having a round hole in the centre to fasten them to the shaft. They were flat, 
and of the same thickness with the plate above mentioned, and quite sharp, the sides 
concave, the base square and not barbed. Pieces of the shaft were also found. 

The most remarkable thing about this skeleton, however, was a belt, composed of 
parallel copper tubes, about an hundred in number, four inches in length, and of the 
thickness of a common drawing-pencil. 

These tubes were thin, and exterior to others of wood, through each of which a 
leather thong was passed, and tied at each end to a long one passing round the 
body. 

These thongs were preserved, as well as the wooden tubes; the copper was much 
decayed, and in some places gone. This belt was fastened under the left arm, by 
tying the ends of the long strings together, and passed round the breast and back a 
little below the shoulder-blades. Nothing else was found, but a piece of coarse cloth 
or matting, of the thickness of sail-cloth, a few inches square. It is to be observed 
that the flesh appeared to have been preserved wherever any of the copper touched it. 

I could not learn the place where this body was found, or its- position. 

With respect to the bodies found this summer, I saw the man who dug them up. 
They were found in ploughing down a hill, in order to open a road, about three or four 
feet under ground, some two or three hundred yards from the water, and nearly oppo¬ 
site Mount Hope. 

There appeared to have been at least three bodies interred here, but they were 
entirely broken up by the plough; one skull only, which resembled in shape the one 
above described, being found whole. The flesh on one of the thigh-bones was entire, 
and similar in color and substance to that in the first skeleton, and like that. It bore 
the marks of copper rust. Three or four plates of copper like that first found were 
discovered, one having a leather thong through the hole in the top. Arrow-heads of 
copper were also found, and parts of the shafts. One arrow-head was fastened on by 
a piece of cord like a fishing-line well twisted, passing through the hole, and wound 
round the shaft. There were also some more matting, a bunch of short, red, curled 
hair, and one of black hair, but neither resembling that of a man, and a curved bar 
of iron about fourteen inches long, much rusted, not sharpened, but smaller at one end 





Plate 74 



LOCAL MANITO 




ANTIQUITIES. 129 

than at the other. It did not appear to have been used as a weapon. These were 
all the remains discovered.” 

Such are the famous Fall River skeletons. But little argument is necessary, to 
show that they must have been North American Indians. The state of preservation 
of the flesh and bones, proves that they could not have been of very ancient date; 
the piece of the skull now exhibited being perfectly sound, and with the serrated 
edge of the suture. 

The conical formation of the skull peculiar to the Indian, seems also conclusive. 
The character of the metallic implements found with them, is not such as to warrant 
any other supposition. 

Both Rome and Phoenicia were well acquainted with the elaborate working of iron 
and brass; these were apparently mere sheet-copper, rudely cut into simple form; 
neither the belt nor plates were fit for defensive armor. And lastly, the use of copper 
for arrow-heads among the Indians at the arrival of the Puritans, is well authenti¬ 
cated. Mention is made of them by Mourt, in his Journal of Plymouth Plantation, 
in 1620, printed in the eighth volume of Massachusetts Historical Collections, pages 
219-20; in Higgeson’s New England Plantation, first volume of Massachusetts Histo¬ 
rical Collections, page 123, and in various other places. They are also found in many 
of the tumuli of the West. Those of the New England Indians may have been 
obtained from the people of French Acadie, who traded with them long before the 
Plymouth settlement. 

From these circumstances it appears that the skeletons at Fall River were those of 
Indians who may possibly have lived during the time of Philip’s wars, or a few years 
earlier, but that they are only those of Indians. 


IT 






IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
























, . 


■ 







IV. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.' 


A. Geographical memoranda respecting the discovery of the Mississippi river, with a map 

of its source. 

B. Gold deposit of California. 

C. Mineralogical and geographical notices, denoting the value of the aboriginal territory. 

1. Tin on the Kansas river, with a sketch. 

2. Wisconsin and Iowa lead ores. 

3. Black oxide of copper of Lake Superior. 

4. Native silver of the drift stratum of Michigan. 

5. Petroleum of the Chickasaw lands. 

6. Artesian borings for salt in the Onondaga plateau. 

7. Geography of the Genesee country of Western New York. 

D. Existing geological action of the Great Lakes, with a Plate. 

E. Antique osteology of the monster period. 

F. An aboriginal Palladium, as exhibited in the Oneida Stone, with a Plate. 

G. Minnesota. 


A. GEOGRAPHICAL MEMORANDA RESPECTING THE 
PROGRESS OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 
RIVER, WITH A MAP OF ITS SOURCE. 

1. It appears, from the archaeological collections of Ternoux Campans , that the 
mouth of the Mississippi was discovered by the Spanish from Cuba, under M. Narvaez, 
the contemporary and antagonist of Cortes, in the month of November, 1527, during 
an expedition made with boats to trace the Floridian coasts of the Gulf westwardly. 1 2 
Mexico had fallen into their hands but six years before—an event by which a period 


1 The connection of these papers with the past and present history and condition of the Indian tribes, 
who are the immediate subject of these inquiries, will be recognised. 

2 This fact is not, however, specially stated in the loose translations of Ternoux, which are without maps 
of the journey. The inference is plain. 


( 133 ) 



134 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


was put to the Aztec empire, and a spirit of conquest and discovery awakened, which 
soon left no part of the continent unexplored, or unvisited. Expeditions, by land and 
water, were made far and wide, and it is only a matter of surprise that, while the 
Panuco and other minor streams were carefully searched, the Mississippi, which pours 
out its vast alluvion, and carries more water into the Gulf than any other stream, if 
not a volume equal to all the rest united, should not have been identified even at an 
earlier period. That such a river entered the Gulf from the North appears to have 
been early rumored; but whatever was known to the Spaniards, they long concealed 
the knowledge from other nations; and it is only, indeed, since the date of the series 
of publications above-named, that the account of the first discovery of the Mississippi, 
at that early date, has become generally known to authors. 

2. De Leon had discovered Florida in 1512; but De Soto was the first of his coun¬ 
trymen who, in the spirit of the age, prepared to undertake, at large, the discovery 
of the interior of the vast Indian territories lying north of the Gulf, which now compose 
the United States. If he was disappointed on his march in stumbling on kingdoms 
abounding in gold and wealth, such as Cortez and Pizarro had found in the South, he 
may be said, in falling on' the Mississippi river, to have found a valley more intrin¬ 
sically valuable, in after times, than any or all the discoveries of his more famous 
predecessors. It was in 1541 that he reached the banks of this stream. It is, to 
some extent, uncertain at what particular point he struck it, or how far his followers 
penetrated north. It is manifest from the existing names of streams and places that 
he passed through territories occupied by the Cherokees and Musgogees. Antiquarians 
and ethnologists may well examine this question, in all its bearings, as it is not 
improbable that some features of our western antiquities, lying north of the mouth 
of the Ohio, which it is common to refer to earlier times, may be found to have had 
their origin no farther hack than the era of the expedition of De Soto. 

3. When De Soto landed in Florida, the present area of the United States, and all 
north of it, remained a vast terra incognita. The Cabots had seen the North Atlantic 
coast in 1497; the Cortereals had probably followed his track. Beyond this its 
geography remained a blank. Its rivers, and mountains, and lakes, were not even 
conjectured, or, like the nebulae of astronomy, served only as the basis for hypothesis. 

Cartier, who ascended the St. Lawrence eight years later, namely, in 1535, appeared 
to have had no idea, if we are to judge by his journals, either that there was such a 
river as the Mississippi on the continent, or that it lay west of the vast, unexplored 
territories which he apprehended the Indians to call “ Canada.” This navigator, on 
his second voyage, ascended to the island and town of Hochelaga, which he reached 
on the 3d of October, 1535, and to the apex of which he gave the name of Mont 
Royal. Donnaconna, standing with him on the island mountain, told him, speaking 
of the river St. Lawrence, that it originated so far off, “ that there was never man 
heard of, who had found the head thereof;” that it passed through several great 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


135 


lakes; and there was u a fresh-water sea,”—which is, indeed, the idea graphically 
conveyed by the Indian term for Lake Superior. 

The idea of the Great Liver of the West was doubtless derived from the discoveries 
of De Soto, and the earlier attempts of the Spanish adventurers from Cuba to trace 
the northern shores of the Gulf towards Mexico. France did not avail herself of the 
primary discoveries of Cartier, or rather failed to turn them to practical account. The 
opinion that Canada was unfruitful, and its vast domains were not gold-bearing 
regions, and that they contained no new element of commerce beyond the fisheries 
of Newfoundland, and the fur trade, appears to have chilled the ardor of enterprise. 
It was not, at least, till the era of Champlain, A. D. 1608, that any thing deserving 
the name of a French colony was founded in Canada. 

4. Meantime, there had come from the West, as from some newly-descended El 
Dorado, the Algonquin name of Mississippi; which was conjectured to denote the 
same great river which the Spaniards had seen at its mouth in 1527, and which De 
Soto had explored in 1541—2. 1 To determine this fact, became a point of geographical 
interest. But the French colonial government found its utmost energies taxed, to 
maintain its position against the Iroquois confederacy, without authorizing an expe¬ 
dition or public commission, to explore the great and unknown river. Full seventy 
years more elapsed, before such an enterprise was authorized. Meanwhile, French 
commerce and missionary zeal had explored the great lakes, and established posts and 
missions at Sault Ste. Marie, Michillimackinac, and other early occupied and well- 
known points. 

It was not till 1678,—a century and a half from the original discovery of its mouth, 
—that Robert de La Salle came out from France, with full authority from the crown, 
to explore the country and establish colonies. This enterprising, hardy, and high- 
minded explorer of American geography, directed all his energies to the South and 
South-west; and he was the true cause of all the incidental explorations of this stream 
of that era, for some nine hundred or a thousand miles above the mouth of the Illinois, 
as well as those directed to proceed to its issue, into the Gulf, 2 

Pierre Marquette, a Jesuit, a man of education and family, opened the path of 
discovery in that year, by passing from Green Bay, through the interlocking valleys 
of the Fox and Mindota, or Wisconsin Rivers,—from the mouth of the latter of which, 
he descended the Mississippi to the Illinois; on his return, he proceeded to Lake 
Michigan, where he died. He was, therefore, if we do not misapprehend, the first 


1 The narrative of the expedition of Narvaez has never been translated: it is inaccessible to the common reader. 
Its early date makes it an important document, which it is hoped may be soon given to the public. 

2 Hennepin says two hundred and fifty leagues above the point of his capture—which is stated to have been 
one hundred and fifty leagues above the influx of the Illinois—vaguely guessed, but still approximating to the 
true distance. 



136 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


explorer of the Mississippi, in the section of this stream lying between the mouths of 
the Wisconsin and Illinois. 

Lewis Hennepin had accompanied La Salle to the Niagara; was present at his 
opening councils with the haughty Iroquois, also at the building of the first vessel 
designed to navigate the lakes, and accompanied him in it to the position of Green 
Bay, and afterwards in canoes, by way of “the Miami,”—now St. Joseph’s 1 —to the 
Illinois. A Recollet, bent only on exercising the appropriate functions of his order 
among the Indian tribes, he descended the Illinois from the site of Fort Crevecoeur, with 
two men, (Picard and Aco); while La Salle, pressed by the imminence of his affairs, 
returned by land , on snow-shoes , to Fort Frontenac. 2 The descent of the Mississippi 
by Hennepin, from the Illinois to the Gulf, has been called in question, with apparent 
good reason, from discrepancies in his first published and subsequent accounts; from 
which it is very much doubted how far he actually descended, or whether he ever 
descended below the Illinois. This doubt does not attach to his capture by hostile 
Indians, several days’ journey above the mouth of the Illinois, and being carried by 
them above the Falls of St. Anthony, to the River St. Francis; both which received 
their present names from him. This constitutes the most northerly point of his 
voyage, and denotes the true, undisputed field of his exploration. 

5. The unfrocked monk, Geudeville, who travelled extensively in Canada, and 
published his “New Voyages to North America,” under the name of the Baron La 
Hontan, is the next claimant to notice, in the section of the upper Mississippi, above 
the mouth of the Wisconsin.—It is doubted how far this jolly soldier and bon vivant 
travelled west. He had served at various points in the interior, and leaves no reason 
to doubt his presence, at various times, at St. Joseph’s, (now Fort Gratiot) Michilli- 
mackinac, Green Bay, and other points in the region of the upper Lakes. It is the 
opinion of persons best acquainted with the geography of the river Wisconsin, that he 
went no farther than Green Bay. Others have seen in the description of the Fox 
and Wisconsin Valleys, evidences of his writing from personal observation, although 
there is nothing between the extreme eastern and western points of these two valleys, 
described by him, which he could not have fully learned at Green Bay from the 
Indians, or the Couriers du Bois. However this may be, there can be but little 
question of the character of the fiction he attempted to palm off on his European 
readers, by the description of his discovery and exploration of a great stream falling 
into the Mississippi, some nine days’ journey above the Wisconsin, to which he gives 
the name of “Long River.” 

6. Geographers have in vain searched for “Long River.” If either the upper Iowa, 
the Canon River, (called La Honton by Mr. Nicolet,) or the St. Peter’s, be meant, 


1 Of Lake Michigan. 

2 On Lake Ontario. Let no American boast that he has exceeded this piece of hardihood. 






ANTIQUITIES. 


137 


neither of these streams correspond at all to his description. The St, Peter’s, the 
largest and longest of the number, would not suffice, in length, for a tenth part of his 
protracted voyage, extending from November 3d to January 26th. Of the « Eokoros, 
“j Essanapes,” and other populous tribes of sounding names, mentioned by “ The Baron,” 
no one, before or since, has ever heard. All these streams, as is well known, were 
inhabited during the latter part of the 17th century as at this day, exclusively by 
tribes of the Dacotah or Sioux family. Indeed, the entire portion of the Baron’s 
letter, dated Michillimackinac, May 28th, 1689, (page 109 to 135, Yol. I., London, 
1703,) in which he describes his voyage and discoveries on this extraordinary stream 
called “ Long Biver,” as well as his subsequent visit to, and up, the Missouri, is a 
literary curiosity, which, if we except the famous imaginative history of Formosa, is 
unexcelled in bibliography, for its bold assumption in attempting to impose on a 
credulous age a tale of fancied adventures and fictitious observations. 

Yet, unlike the Formosian history, it details no imminent perils—no curious 
discoveries—no striking observations — no thrilling events—not a feature, indeed, 
which, as a work of fancy, may be seized on, to redeem or excuse the details of its 
clumsy and unblushing improbabilities. 1 He nowhere impresses us with having seen 
the Mississippi at all—far less that portion of it above the mouth of the Wisconsin, 
which is embosomed in high cliffs of rock, often of the most picturesque shapes, and 
presenting, on every hand, views of the most striking grandeur and pleasing beauty. 
He does not notice a single one of its most remarkable scenes — not a word of the 
mountain island —les montagne des tromps d'eau —nothing of the beautiful expanse of 
Lake Pepin, with its storied cliff, the peak of La Orange, or the Falls of St. Anthony; 
which could not have failed to attract the gay visitor, had he gone so near to it as the 
St. Peter’s. 

7. These notices constitute not the only, but the chief record of the explorations of 
the upper Mississippi, during the period of the French supremacy in the Canadas and 
Louisiana. Charlevoix, who saw the country some thirty-two years after the death 
of La Salle, on a general visit to the French missions, passed, in 1720, from the Lakes 
to the Mississippi, by the way of the Illinois. He made judicious and useful observa¬ 
tions on the scenes and subjects coming before him, and doubted the issue of the famous 
mining operations then being made in Missouri, under the authority of the grant to 
Crozet. 

8. The fall of Canada, in 1763, opened the path of enterprise for the English 
colonies towards the West, and brought several adventurers into the field, who were 


1 The account of the purported voyage from Port Crevecoeur, on the Illinois, to Michillimackinac, page 135, 
187, recognises the ordinary land-marks, mostly by existing names, and contains but few improbabilities; yet 
the observer who could state that there are no “banks of sand,” at de lours qui dorl, could never have passed 
that marked coast. 

18 




138 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


actuated by higher motives than those of mere trade with the native tribes. Carver 
was the only one of the number, known to us by their publications, who pushed his 
travels into the upper Mississippi. This man has been underrated. He had formed 
the bold design of crossing the continent to the shores of the Pacific, which he 
supposed he could do by the head-waters of the Mississippi. He reached Michilli- 
mackinac-on-the-main in the summer of 1766, and thence proceeded, on the 3d of 
September, to Green Bay, and, by the old French route of the Fox and Wisconsin 
valleys, to Prairie du Chien. At this place the traders with whom he had travelled 
took up their wintering posts. He then purchased a canoe, and with two men, a 
Canadian and a Mohawk, proceeded to ascend the river — reached the falls of St. 
Anthony on the 17th of November, and ascended, as he adds, above that point to 
the river St. Francis, — being the precise spot that Hennepin had reached in the time 
of La Salle. This was the terminus of his voyage. He did not, therefore, extend 
the area of discovery towards the north, in that direction, although his subsequent 
exploration of the St. Peters, and the north shores of Lake Superior, place his 
name among the number of those who have enlarged the boundaries of American 
geography. 

9. Carver had either misjudged the difficulties of so serious an enterprise as an 
overland journey across the continent, or the means he had for its accomplishment,— 
probably both objects: for we find him, in July of the next year, wending his way 
back to the seaboard, by the way of Lake Superior. He then went to London to 
advocate his plan of discovery, and having been disappointed in his interviews with 
official persons, turned to the booksellers with the manuscript of his travels. Discredit 
has been thrown upon his volume, partly from the introduction of some injudicious 
matter in that portion of it which consists of his own personal narrative, extending 
from the 11th to the 114th page, (Phil. ed. A. D. 1796,) but, chiefly, from the compiled 
account of the manners and customs of the Indians, which is clearly taken from the 
works of Charlevoix, Adair, La Hontan, and other authors, without apprising the 
reader of these sources of information, and without a discriminating judgment in the 
selection and re-production of the matter. If I have been correctly informed, Carver 
had very little agency in bringing forward the superadded matter, which the book¬ 
sellers, owning his personal narrative, found it necessary to have prepared in order to 
swell the size of his volume, and arrest the public eye. 1 Carver, as is known, did not 
survive his repeated disappointments, but died in London, as it is asserted, in great 
want. 

10. Carver was the only colonial traveller who ventured into the area of the upper 
Mississippi, Adair and others having been located, or having passed their itinerating 
voyages in other parts of the immense frontiers. The name of Oregon, of which the 


1 Verbal communication of the late Elkanah Watson, Esq., of Albany, N. Y. 



139 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

origin is uncertain, first appears in the volume of this traveller, and we trace to him 
the apparently misinterpreted name of Rum River —an important stream originating 
m a great lake, called Mills Lac by the French, lying west of the head of Lake 
Superior. This stream comes in, on the left or east bank of the Mississippi, above the 
Falls of St. Anthony. 

11. Pike’s expedition is the next in the order of discovery. The acquisition of 
Louisiana, in 1803, had rendered it an object of just interest to the government to 
ascertain its utmost boundaries, and true geographical extent and character; and the 
necessary instructions for exploring the Great River of the West, now called Columbia, 
extending to the Pacific Ocean, were confided to General Wilkinson, and executed by 
Lewis and Clark. Lieutenant Pike, who was selected to trace up the Mississippi to 
its source, left St. Louis on the 9th of August, 1805—full two months too late 
in the year, to reach its source before the season of intensest cold. He reached 
the Falls of St. Anthony on the 26th of September, where he determined the river 
to sink its level fifty-eight feet in two hundred and sixty poles, with a perpendicular 
plunge of sixteen and a half feet. Passing the St. Francis, the utmost point reached 
by his predecessors in discovery, he urged his barges up the numerous rapids, with 
great toil, to and above the falls of the Painted Rock — a distance of two hundred 
and thirty-three and a half miles above St. Anthony’s Falls, and six hundred 
above the junction of the Wisconsin, as estimated from day to day by himself. (Pike’s 
Expd. App. 1, p. 26.) This point he reached on the 16th of October. A change 
in the weather now occurred—snow began to fall—ice had commenced running, and 
the temperature of the water became so reduced that his men could not endure the 
continued labor of dragging the boats up the rapids; he therefore determined to 
build a small stockade at this point, and leaving his heavy baggage and part of his 
men in charge of a trusty non-commissioned officer, to proceed in the ascent on foot. 

12. By the 10th of December he had finished his block-houses, and replenished 
them with provisions by hunting, and having built sleds to be drawn by hand, took a 
part of his men and moved forward. He reached Sandy Lake on the 8th January, 
1806, and Leech Lake on the 1st February following. The ice had now firmly sealed 
up the streams, lakes, and savannahs, which proved advantageous to his progress, by 
enabling him to take short cuts across the country. The snow, which had begun to 
fall about the middle of October, appears to have spread equally over the surface, and 
is not complained of on the score of its depth, while it permitted the sleds to be 
drawn. He found the factors of the North-west Company in possession of the whole 
country. They had ample stockades at Sandy Lake and Leech Lake, and occupied 
the minor trading posts with subordinate buildings. He states that they sent out 
annually into different parts forty outfits, or separate trading canoes, and employed 
one hundred and nine accountants, clerks, interpreters, and canoe-men, exclusive of 
their families. By their agency, two hundred and thirty-three packs of furs and 


140 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


peltries, including the returns of the “ X. Y. Company,” and some other posts, were 
gathered from the Indians. He estimates the duties on the goods and wares brought 
into the United States in this quarter, and traded illegally, at thirteen thousand 
dollars per annum. Acting under the apprehension of a seizure of the peltries in 
store, (one hundred and fifteen packs,) and led by feelings of enlightened hospitality, 
he received every attention from the agents in charge at Sandy Lake and Leech Lake. 
On the 12th of February, the factors at the latter post went with him in a train de 
glis, drawn by dogs, to Upper Red Cedar Lake—a distance estimated on the portage 
route, at thirty miles, where he remained over night, and the next day, and he 
returned to Leech Lake on the 14th. This constituted the terminal point of his 
expedition. 

13. Pike’s expedition served to give us the first notions of that remote part, of 
what was then called Upper Louisiana—its general topography and resources. He 
writes to Gen. Wilkinson on his return, that he had travelled seven hundred miles on 
foot; that six months out of the nine, while he was in the country above St. Anthony’s 
Falls, snow covered the ground, which forbade minuteness of observation on its 
natural history, had he been ever so competent to this branch; and that the cold 
was often so severe as to freeze the ink in his pen, while recording his notes. He 
took observations for latitude at the mouth of Turtle River on Upper Red Cedar 
Lake, which he places in 47° 42' 40" being but 17' 17" north of the true latitude, as 
subsequently determined by Mr. Nicolet, in 1846. He speaks of this lake as “the 
upper source of the Mississippi,” and observes of Leech Lake, that “this is rather 
considered the main source, although the Winnipeque branch is navigable the greatest 
distance.” (Pike’s Exp., App. Part I., page 56, Philada. ed. 1810.) 

14. Geographers consider that branch of a river its true source, which draws its 
waters from the point most remote from its mouth. In this view, neither the Leech 
Lake,—which is, however, the largest mass of water tributary on that plateau or 
formation,—nor Upper Red Cedar Lake, which is a mere expansion of the Mississippi, 
can, by any means, be deemed the source of this celebrated stream, consistently with 
our present information. But the servants of the North-west Company, who were 
assiduous in their attentions to Lieutenant Pike, while they offered to facilitate his 
minor trips of exploration from Sandy Lake to Leech Lake, and Upper Red Cedar 
Lake, were content to let him depart with as precise a compliance with his requests 
as the nature of these permitted, without attempting to enlarge voluntarily the cycle 
of his knowledge of the general topographical and statistical features of the country 
at large. Whether policy or some other motive dictated this, it is certain that these 
agents of a foreign power did not lay before him—what they, as intelligent men, 
should certainly have known—the actual point or points from which this river draws 
its primary waters. 

15. They gave him the Turtle Portage, as the ultimate source; —a summit little 
exceeding forty miles north of the north-eastern shores of Upper Red Cedar Lake. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


141 


At the same time, they concurred in the opinion of Mr. Thompson, an astronomer 
formerly employed by the North-west Company, that the national boundary, to be 
drawn west from the Lake of the Woods, would intersect the Mississippi; an old 
idea, founded on the delineations of Mitchell s map, which it appears was employed 
at the time of the definitive treaty of 1783, but which Lieutenant Pike felt no dispo¬ 
sition, however, to concur in, although he was not apprised of the influx of the Missis¬ 
sippi proper into the west end of Upper Red Cedar Lake, from a summit which is now 
known to be nearly an entire degree south of that point, and by a channel but little 
short of two hundred miles. 

16. Pike set out from Leech Lake on his return, on the 18th of February, 1806; 
and rejoined his party in the fortified camp at Pine Creek, below Elk River, on the 
west banks of the Mississippi, on the 5th of March. The river began to open on the 
4th of April, and he was able to set sail, down stream, in his largest perogue, on the 
7th of that month. Floating on the spring tides, he was impelled forward with 
extraordinary velocity, and reached Prairie du Chien on the 18th of April, and finally 
returned to St. Louis, on the 30th of April, 1806, after an absence of eight months 
and twenty-two days; of which the greater part was passed above St. Anthony’s 
Falls. 

17. The spirit of discovery now paused for twelve years. In the early part of 1820, 
the Executive of Michigan Territory, at Detroit, General Lewis Cass, transmitted a 
memorial to the government, suggesting the continuation of the discovery at the point 
previously dropped. An expedition was organised in the spring of that year, under 
this recommendation, which embraced a survey of the natural history and resources of 
the country, as well as its topography and Indian population. It passed through the 
series of the upper lakes, tracing their shores,— devoting special attention to the 
development of copper ores on the shores of Lake Superior. Leaving that lake at 
its extreme western head, it ascended the St. Louis river to its highest navigable 
point, and made an overland journey across the summit separating it from the 
Mississippi Yalley, reaching the waters of the latter at Sandy Lake. At this point 
the trading fort of the North-west Company, mentioned by Lieut. Pike, was found; but 
it had in the meantime passed out of the hands of that company four years previously, 
having, together with all the posts of the region, been purchased in 1816, from the 
proprietors, at Montreal, by Mr. John Jacob Astor. This individual organized a new 
copartnership under the name of the American Fur Company. A law of Congress 
of the same year, excluded foreign traders from the business, which led him to make 
exertions to obtain American citizens to take out his licenses, and cover the trade; 
without any marked success, however, in this respect, for many years. Men who 
had grown grey in the service of a foreign company, who had been born and bred 
under another allegiance, but who were expert traders, felt but small interest in 
remodelling the political feelings and general relations of the Indian tribes, and 


142 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


changing their fealty from a government which they had ever heard extolled, and 
which they admired as a model of strength and magnanimity, to one which they 
regarded as rather antagonistical to all this. This second display of the national flag, 
therefore, in that remote quarter, with a renewal of the efforts to produce a permanent 
peace between the Sioux and Chippewa tribes, and a manifestation of the ability of 
the American government both to claim its rights, and exert its power over the 
country, had a decided effect upon the aborigines. And from this era we may date 
the establishment of American supremacy and a favorable state of feeling in that 
quarter. Katawabeda, Frezzie, Guele Plat, and other leading chiefs, who had attended 
Pike’s councils twelve years before, were still alive. These were chiefs in the height 
of their influence. 

18. Governor Cass, who led this expedition, determined to make the dep6t of his 
heavy supplies, and leave his military escort, with part of his French canoe-men, at 
the post of Sandy Lake, and proceed with light canoes, and a select party, to ascend 
the river. Considering his initial point to be Sandy Lake, he was now at an esti¬ 
mated distance of about two hundred miles above the site of Pike’s wintering grounds 
in 1805-6. It was the month of July—the face of the country exhibited its summer 
aspect, spotted, as it is, with almost innumerable lakes, savannahs, and rice lands; 
and it was hoped the waters of the higher summits, or plateaux, were still sufficient 
to permit navigation to its farthest source. 

19. The elite party selected for the ascent embarked in canoes of good capacity at 
Sandy Lake, on the 17th of July. Two days’ diligent ascent brought them to the Falls 
of Puckagama; so called by the Chippewas, from the portage which it is necessary to 
make across an elbow of land formed by the passage of the river through a formation 
of quartzy sand rock. In this passage the river is much compressed, twists greatly 
in its channel, and rushes with a foaming velocity, without a perpendicular fall. It 
forms, however, an absolute bar to the navigation. Above this point spreads the 
Leech Lake level or summit. This summit abounds in extensive savannahs, rice 
fields, and open lakes, and which are interlaced, as it were, with passages that may 
be navigated by canoes most of the season. The party passed the Leech Lake fork 
or inlet on the third day from Sandy Lake; and having the next day entered Little 
Lake Winnipec — an expanse of the channel —again entered the river, and pursued it 
to Upper Red Cedar Lake, which the party entered on the 21st of August. They 
encamped on the west side of the mouth of Turtle River. This constituted the 
terminus of the voyage. On their return route the party descended the Mississippi, 
by the way of St. Anthony’s Falls, to the mouth of the Wisconsin, and by the Wis¬ 
consin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, Chicago, and the lakes, the shores of which 
were topographically traced. 

20. By this second expedition of the government to determine the sources of the 
Mississippi, the channel was first traced from Pike’s Stockade, at the falls of the 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


143 


Painted Rock, to Upper Red Cedar Lake, or Cass Lake, so named to prevent its being 
confounded with another Red Cedar Lake below Sandy Lake. The shores of Lakes 
Huron, Michigan, and Superior, were topographically traced by Captain Douglas, an 
engineer officer from West Point Academy, together with the valleys of the rivers 
St. Louis and Savannah, which form the connecting link of communication between 
Lake Superior and Sandy Lake of the upper Mississippi. It revealed the geological 
and mineral structure of the basin of Lake Superior; the vast diluvial plains resting 
on primitive and volcanic rock, on the source of the Mississippi, and the broad 
northern terminal edges of the great carboniferous and magnesian limestones of the 
Mississippi Yalley. 

21. Geographers still felt that the actual source of the Mississippi was not deter¬ 
mined. The Chippewa bands at Cass Lake, described the river as flowing in, on the 
south-west end of that lake, in a volume not inferior in width to its outlet. They 
reported it as expanding into numerous lakes, with many falls, and severe rapids, 
over which the river descended from higher levels. They affirmed its actual origin 
to be a sheet of water called by the French Lac la Biche —that is, Elk Lake; lying in 
or amidst chains of hills which separate its waters from those flowing north, into the 
great basin of Lake Winnipec of Hudson Bay. 

22. In 1823, the United States determined to carry out this exploration of its 
northern domains. Major S. H. Long, U. S. A., entered and ascended the St. Peters; 
passing from its head-waters to the Red River of the North, which he pursued to its 
mouth in Great Lake Winnipec; traversed the southern shores of that lake to the 
outlet of the Lake of the Woods, and thence by the Rainy Lake route and Fort 
William, on the northern shores of Lake Superior, proceeded to the Sault Ste. Marie. 
A long line of the extreme northern frontiers of the Union was thus laid open and 
described. 

23. A Mr. Beltrami, who had attached himself to Major Long’s party, left him at 
the Scottish settlement of Lord Selkirk, about Fort Douglas, or Kildunnan, on Red 
River, and took his way back up the Red Lake River into Red Lake, and thence by 
the usual traders’ route, across the summit of Turtle Portage to Turtle River, and 
down this stream to its inlet into Cass Lake,— at the very point where the expedition 
of 1820 had terminated its explorations. Mr. Beltrami, whose volume, in many 
respects, is worthless, and replete with descriptions not to be relied on, must, however, 
be regarded as the earliest author who has described the Turtle River route. He 
named a lake at the head of this river, Julia; apparently, that he might denominate 
this the Julian source of the Mississippi. 

24. The next eight years complicated our Indian affairs on that frontier. In 1831, 
the government directed the author to visit the Chippewa and Sioux bands, occupying 
the area of the valley of the Upper Mississippi, with the view of arresting the long- 
continued feuds of these two tribes, which were then newly broken out, and restoring 


144 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


peace on the frontiers. It provided a military escort, under Lieutenant R. Clary. I 
left the basin of Lake Superior at Chegoimegon, or La Pointe, and ascended the river 
called Mushkego by the natives, and Mauvais by the French, to the summit which 
divides it from the waters flowing into the Mississippi River. The ascent was difficult, 
and the waters low. By a series of portages, and intersecting lakes, I carried my 
baggage and canoes to the Namakagon branch of the St. Croix, and descended the 
latter to Yellow River. The state of the war which it was sought to allay between the 
Chippewas and Sioux, led me to reascend the St. Croix and the Namakagon, and from 
the banks of the latter to cross the portage to Ottowa Lake, — one of the sources of 
Chippewa River. Thence I descended the outlet of this lake to Lake Chetac, the 
source of the Red Cedar or Folleavoine branch of the Chippewa, and went down this 
branch to the main Chippewa and to the Mississippi. The latter was then descended 
to the mouth of the Wisconsin, and thence I returned by the Wisconsin and Fox 
Valleys to Green Bay, Michillimackinac, and St. Mary’s. In this expedition the 
valleys of the Maskigo, the Namakagon, the Upper St. Croix, the Chippewa, and 
the Folleavoine, were explored. 

25. The following year, the Sauks and Foxes, under Black Hawk, commenced 
hostilities against the United States by murdering their Agent, Mr. St. Vrain, and 
falling unawares upon the citizens. This outbreak, which was, early in the year, 
unknown to, but suspected by the government, furnished an additional motive for 
continuing the efforts commenced the prior year, to preserve peace among the northern 
tribes. Congress had also, in the mean time, passed an act for vaccinating the Indians; 
and this duty was grafted, by new instructions, on the original plan. These instruc¬ 
tions also embraced the topic of amendments of the laws regulating trade and 
intercourse on the frontiers, the state and prospects of the tribes, their numbers and 
location, and the statistics of the country generally. The party embraced a physician 
and naturalist (the late Dr. Douglas Houghton), a small detachment of infantry, 
under the command of Lieutenant James Allen, U. S. A., who took cognizance of the 
topography, and it was provided with the usual aid of guides, interpreters, and Canadian 
canoe-men, necessary in such labors. Going north to the head-waters of the Missis¬ 
sippi, by the Lake Superior Basin and the St. Louis River, it reached the utmost point 
of the prior discoveries of Lieutenant Pike and General Cass, — that is to say, Upper 
Red Cedar or Cass Lake,—on the 9th of July, 1832; having made the ascent from 
Sandy Lake trading house in five days. The Mississippi, at the outlet of this lake, 
was found to be 172 feet wide, by measurement, and to have an estimated depth of 
8 feet. It had previously been observed to be 318 feet at the influx of Sandy Lake. 

26. An approximation only to the comparative volume of a river, can be made by 
mere admeasurements, without regarding, with great minuteness, the various depths of 
the channel; but such approximations increase our knowledge of the relative volume 
of remote streams, but little known. If the above data be regarded in this light, they 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


145 


weaken the opinion of Lieutenant Pike, that the Leech Lake branch contributed the 
greatest body of water; although the Itascan—called by him the “ Winnipique 
branch”—drew its waters from the remotest point. It is shown that Leech Lake, 
and the entire volume of water added to it by eleven tributaries between its mouth 
and Sandy Lake, have not duplicated the volume of water as determined by width. 

27. I encamped my party, and made my depot on a large island which stands in 
the central area of the lake, (See Plate 41,) where the Indians have gardens, and have 
cultivated Indian corn from the earliest known period. I could not learn that the 
time of the introduction of this grain was known to the Indian traditions at that 
point. Having found here the last fixed village of Chippewas in the ascent of the 
Mississippi, or between it and Red Lake, north of its sources, and finished my official 
business, I determined to trace up the river to its actual source. The water was 
found favorable; although the rapids were represented as very numerous and formi¬ 
dable, and wholly impracticable for canoes of the large size I travelled in. I procured 
smaller ones, such as the Indians hunt in; and seating myself in one, and each of the 
four gentlemen of my party in a separate one, proceeded the next morning to make 
the ascent, with Indian maps of bark, and Indian guides. As I have described this 
journey in detail, in a volume published in 1834, with maps, 1 it will only be necessary 
to say that the effort proved successful. A sketch may, however, be given. 

28. I left my encampment on the island at four o’clock, A. M., on the 10th of July, 
in five small hunting canoes, each having an Indian and a Canadian in its bow and 
stern; the whole being under the guidance of the chief of the village, Ozawundib, or the 
Yellow Head. I took the chief into my canoe, with the mess-basket, oil-cloth, kettle 
and axe. Lieut. Allen had charge of the canoe-compass, and the other paraphernalia 
of the topographical department. Dr. Houghton put his plant-press beside him, and 
my interpreter, Mr. Johnston, and the Rev. Mr. Boutwell, a missionary in the service 
of the A. B. C. F. M., each occupied separate canoes. It required skill, indeed, even 
for a practised man, to sit in so ticklish a vessel, and in so confined a space. We 
moved forward rapidly, whenever the water would permit. An hour’s working with 
paddles, brought us near to the end of the lake, where, to avoid a very serpentine 
course of the river, we made a portage of fifty yards, from the shores of the lake into 
the river above. We passed, in a short distance, two small lakes, being expansions 
of the river. Numerous severe rapids were encountered. Up some of these, the men 
dragged our canoes. Partly in this way, and partly by the force of paddles, we 
pressed on, step by step, and at last reached the summit of the Pemidyigumaug, or 
Cross-water Lake, at the computed distance of forty-five miles above Cass Lake. 
This was the first essay. 


1 Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper Mississippi to Itasca Lake. New York, Harpers, 1884. 

19 




146 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


29. The Cross-water Lake, called Traverse by the French, is, in every feature, a 
beautiful sheet of clear water, some ten or a dozen miles in length. It lies on the 
same summit as Turtle Lake, which has been so long and so improperly reputed as 
the source of the Mississippi. The elevation of the Cross-water, or Permidjguma, 
has been determined by barometrical observation at fifty-two feet above Cass Lake. 1 
It is a point which may be noted in the topography of this stream, as its most extreme 
extension of north latitude; all its waters above this lake, being from sources south 
or south-west of this parallel. Its most southerly point is put, in Mr. Nicolet’s tables, 
in lat. 47° 28' 46". 

30. Half a mile above this we entered a lake, to which the name of Washington 
Irving was given. This lake might be deemed a re-expansion of the Cross-water, were 
it not separated from it by a narrow strait, or channel, having a perceptible current. 
About four miles higher, the Mississippi is marked by the junction of its primary 
forks, both of which originate in the elevated heights of the Hauteur des Terres. 
The right hand, or largest branch, originates in Itasca Lake. I took the other branch, 
or Plantagenet source, as having fewer rapids and minor falls to surmount. It was 
soon found to expand into a small lake, called Marquette; and a little higher, into 
another lake, called La Salle. A few miles above the latter, we entered the more 
considerable expanse of the Kubbekaning, at the head of which we encamped, at a 
late hour, in a drizzling rain, and amidst a forest of spruce and larch, which had quite 
a spectral look, from the thick depending mosses which hung from branch to branch. 

31. We left this dreary camp as early the next morning (the 11th) as the heavy 
fog and murky air would permit, and pursued our course—a very serpentine channel; 
the stream winding its way through savannahs, and re-doubling in its course, with 
scarcely a perceptible current. These boggy grounds were narrow, and bounded by a 
forest of stunted grey pines and tamaracks, festooned with moss. Clumps of alder 
and willows fringed the banks. Vegetation had an Alpine character. We frequently 
disturbed water-fowl in the passage, and observed deer on the shore; one of the latter 
was shot by Ozawundib. The stream appeared to be nearly on a dead level. Styx 
could not have been less attractive. Towards evening we passed the Naiwa, or 
Copper-headed-snake River, a tributary coming in on the left bank. Soon after this, 
we encountered rapids, and some minor falls. The guide stopped at the foot of a 
high hill of drift pebbles and sand. Up this we scrambled. Canoes and baggage 
followed. We made a portage across a peninsula, and struck the stream again above 
the falls; where we encamped, wearied with a long day’s little incidents. 

32. On the third day’s journey we came, at an early hour, to Assowa Lake, which 
we passed, under paddles, in twenty minutes. On reaching its head, Ozawundib 
pushed my canoe into a marshy inlet covered with pond lilies and other aquatic 


1 Nicolet. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


147 


plants. He urged it as far as possible towards the dry ground, and stopped. We had 
reached the terminal point of this branch. We were in a perfect morass. Here the 
portage to Itasca Lake began, across the Hauteur des Terres. No tract on the whole 
route presented so severe a toil. We were continually mounting acclivities, or 
descending into gulfs. Geologically, this elevation consists of hills of the diluvial or 
erratic block group, disposed in ancient dune-shaped ridges. Pines, of several species, 
are dispersed over it. The depressions or depths between these have served as reposi¬ 
tories for accumulated vegetable matter. These gulfs are sometimes boggy: more 
often they contain small lakes or ponds. The pines exhibit parasitic grey moss. We 
saw r the passenger pigeon, and one or two species of the hawk family. It was a hot 
July day. Our hardy canoe-men set down their burdens many times on the route. 
We passed it in thirteen rests, or opugidjiwunun, as the Chippewas term it—which, 
in estimating the actual distance, gives this elevation a breadth of about six miles. 
We found the strawberry ripe. We saw frequent tracks of the red, or common 
Virginia deer. Beneath the tread, we had evidences of oceanic action, in the abraded 
boulders and pebble stones of both the primary and sedimentary species of rocks. It 
seemed that northern oceans must once have rolled over this region. We were evidently 
passing over a soil which had been reproduced from broken-down strata; and although 
a species of marine sand capped the heights, it was clear, from the small lakes and 
numerous springs, that an aluminous basis was present at no great depth below. I 
felt too much interest in beholding the source of so celebrated a river, to permit my 
lagging behind as we approached the object. My share of the baggage consisted of 
little besides a spy-glass and portfolio; and during the last stage of the portage, I kept 
up with the chief, and passed him in the descent of the last ridge, which brought me 
first to the goal. It was the 13th of July — a clear and calm day, and the lake 
spread, as far as the eye could*see, like a mirror, resting in a basin crowned with 
picturesque hills. The view was wholly sylvan; some elms and other deciduous 
species lined the shores. As soon as the baggage and canoes came up, we embarked, 
passed through the lake, and encamped on an island near its central point, where the 
two arms of which the lake consists, unite. The accompanying view (Plate 42) is 
taken from the shore abreast of this island. 

33. Itasca Lake, to which the river has thus been traced, has its origin wholly in 
springs and small streams of pure water, which issue from the sandy elevations 
embracing it. From a mean of two published estimates of distances, it may be put 
at three thousand and twenty-five miles from the Gulf. Its altitude above the 
Atlantic was estimated at the time at fourteen hundred and ninety feet; assuming, as 
a basis for this, my prior estimate of Cass Lake, made during the expedition of 1820, 
at thirteen hundred and thirty feet, and the elevation of Itasca Lake above Cass Lake 
at one hundred and sixty feet. 

34, Having finished the necessary observations at Itasca Lake, and taken specimens 


148 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


of whatever could be found in its natural history, and cut some canes, I embarked on 
my return down the Itasca branch, and without serious accident, rejoined my encamp¬ 
ment in a few days, at Cass Lake. Lieutenant J. Allen, the officer in charge of 
the topography, who furnished the elements of the annexed map, (Elate 41,) esti¬ 
mated the distance at two hundred and ninety miles, of which one hundred and 
twenty-five miles were up the Plantagenet, and one hundred and sixty-five down 
the Itasca branch. 

35. The natural history of Itasca Lake was left in the hands of Dr. Houghton; 
whose subsequent lamented death in the geological survey of Lake Superior, has, it is 
feared, deprived the public of many interesting and valuable observations. He noticed, 
among other plants on the island, the microstylis ophiog, lossoides, physalis lanceolata, 
and diene antirrhina. The elm, pine, spruce, and wild cherry, were also noticed. 
I picked up, on its sandy shores, the small planorbis companulatus. There was no 
rock in place. Among the pebbles of mixed primitive and sedimentary boulders, 
there were some of considerable size. There were the spinal and head bones of some 
fish, the remains of former feasting, at a deserted Indian camp, which is the only 
evidence known of the lake’s yielding fish. There were also shells or bucklers of a 
species of large tortoise. We saw a fine deer, drinking at the margin of the lake. 
The water was pure, deep, and cold; and reflected, at the depth of several feet, a 
clean, pebbly, and sandy bottom. The topographical observations of Lieutenant Allen 
estimate its extreme length at seven miles. 

36. Four years afterwards,—namely, in 1836,—Mr. J. J. Nicolet, who was under 
instructions from the United States Topographical Bureau, (Colonel J. J. Abert,) 
visited this lake. He reached it on the 29th of August, and we are indebted to him 
for several valuable scientific contributions. He determined its latitude, at the island, 
to be 47° 13' 35". The highest observed point of the Hauteur des Terres , he puts at 
130 feet above the lake. His report, communicated to Congress after his death, by 
Colonel Abert, is a document of high value. Barometrical observations made by him 
make the extreme altitude of Itasca Lake, above the Gulf of Mexico, to be 1575 feet. 
The same observer found the apex of the Hauteur des Terres to be 1680 feet above the 
Gulf; a very inconsiderable altitude, if we consider it as the continental elevation 
between the West Indies and the Northern Seas. 



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B. GOLD DEPOSITS OF CALIFORNIA. 


1. Discovery. 

2. Mineralogical description of specimens sent to War-Office. 

3. Ancient Gold Mines. 

4. South American Gold Mines — large masses found. 

5. Extent of the California deposits, and plan of working them. 

6. Metalliferous diluvial deposits of the United States found in high levels. 

7. Galena of the Mississippi Yalley, and copper of Lake Superior. 

8. Value of the California Mines. 

9. Sacramento and San Joaquin Valley. 

10. Want of Geological date. 

11. Sierra Nevada. 

12. Character of the deposit. 

13. Observations of Colonel Mason. 

14. Extent of this mineral development. 

15. Probability of the original veins being found in the more elevated slate and quartz 

rocks. 

1. The discovery of gold in California makes the year 1848 an era in the history of 
that country. It was accidentally found, in the Spring season, in the diluvial soil, by 
some persons digging the sluice-way for a mill. Specimens of the various kinds of 
the metal and its matrix, were forwarded to the War Department by the chief 
military officer in command, in the month of August. These specimens were not 
received at the War-Office till early in December. I examined them in the library of 
that office, on the 8th of that month. They consisted of thirteen specimens of 
various minerals, chiefly gold in some of its metallic forms. 

2. Judged by external character, the specimens admitted of being grouped in the 
following manner: 

A. Small masses of native gold, in the separate form of grains and scales, or 
minute plates, from which all extraneous matter had been cleanly washed. 

B. Similar forms of equally fine, and highly colored masses, with the loose residuary 
iron sand of the washer. 

C. Masses of scale-form gold of an ounce or more in weight, but offering no other 
peculiarity of character. 

D. An ovate mass of two ounces weight, having a portion of its original matrix of 
quartz still adhering. 

All the scale-form, and lump gold, exhibits, more or less distinctly, the marks of 

attrition, and of having been carried in its alluvial association in the valley of the 

(149) 


150 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


American fork of the Sacramento, some distance from its original position. It is of 
the sub-species of gold—yellow native gold of the systems — the Gold-gelber Gediegen 
Gold, of Werner. The specific gravity of this variety, in its refined state, is generally 
from 17,000 to 19,000. By analysis, it is sometimes found to contain very minute 
portions of silver and copper. 1 

The preceding notices embrace all the specimens of native gold in the thirteen 
separate packages received at the War-Office, exclusive of the caddy, named in 
Colonel Mason’s report. The following comprise the other mineralogical species 
sent. 

E. Native masses of a metal of a light steel grey color, approaching to white, of 
considerable weight. These are scale-form; resembling in this, and in size, the scale 
or plate gold. They present the peculiar color of platina, which it is difficult, how¬ 
ever, to distinguish from palladium. The specific gravity of native platina varies 
between 15,601 and 18,947, but reaches, in its original state, 23,000. 2 

F. Angular masses of a white mineral, of a dull metallic lustre and coarse granular 
fracture, which has the external characters of iron pyrites. 

G. A lump of red-colored ore. This mass is a large and heavy specimen of the 
ore of mercury, called cinnabar, and is well characterized as the dark red variety of 
the systems. 3 

H. Arenaceous magnetic ironstone, of its usual form, color, lustre, and specific 
gravity. This ore is the residium after washing away the alluvial matter from 
the grain and scale gold, and has been transmitted to denote that fact, and not as 
attaching any importance to its value. 4 

3. In appreciating the gold formation of California, we may derive some light from 

1 Analysis at the United States Mint, has determined the value of the gold specimens sent by the Secretary 
of War, to be, before melting, $18.05J per ounce, and after refining, $18.50 — denoting an extraordinary degree 
of purity in the native gold. 

2 Platina has been found at only two places in South America; namely, at Choco, in New Grenada, and at 
Barbacoa, between 2° and 6° north latitude; and this metal has never yet been traced north of the straits of 
Panama. It is associated with palladium and iridium. It occurs, in these localities, in diluvial soils, along with 
grains of gold, zincon, spinel quartz and magnetic ironstone. We may expect all these associations to be verified 
in the deposits of California. 

3 The most important mines of cinnabar now known, are at Almaden, in Spain, which have been worked 
upwards of two thousand years; at Idria, in Friaul; in the Palatinate; and at Deux Ponts, in Spanish America. 
The specific gravity of the Almadian ore is 7.786. The word cinnabar was anciently applied to the drug called 
Dragon's-blood. 

4 This mineral is distributed widely in the rocks and soils of the United States. It constitutes an element 
in all the rich alluvions of the Mississippi Valley, and is very abundant on the shores of the upper lakes, where 
it is driven up by the waves; but being heavier than the silicious sands, it sinks at the water’s edge, while the 
former are winnowed out by the winds, and form banks at higher altitudes. Tons of it together, lie in this pure 
form, on the banks of Lake Superior. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


151 


the history of the discovery of this mineral in other quarters of the globe. Much of 
the native gold of Asia, Africa and Europe, of ancient periods, was found in earthy 
deposits in the beds or valleys of streams, or plains which have been produced from 
the disintegration, gradual degradation, or removal of pre-existing rocks. The 
early sources of gold bullion, of which the bed of the Pactolus is a memorable 
example, have been long exhausted. And as the surface gold of later ages has been 
picked up, or washed out, its origin has been generally traced to fixed veins in conti¬ 
guous mountains, where the expense of crushing the hard rock has been found to be 
well-nigh equal to, and sometimes more than, the value of the gold. In other cases 
there has been a complete exhaustion, as at the Lead-hills in Scotland, where, in the 
time of Queen Elizabeth, £ 100,000 sterling was obtained in a few seasons from the 
alluvial soil. (Jameson.) 

4. A very large proportion of the native gold of South America, which has yielded 
more gold than any other part of the world, is explored in diluvial or disintegrated 
soil, which is generally found spread out at the foot of mountains or outbursting 
valleys from table-lands. Such, too, was the position of the Mexican gold, although, 
at present, it is mined chiefly in quartz veins, in connection with silver and other ores, 
in mountains of mica-slate and gneiss. It is altogether probable, and would be in 
accordance with recorded facts in other parts of the world, that such should also be 
the relative position of the native gold to the original gold-bearing veins in California. 
The fact of the existence of virgin gold in the plains of that province was not 
unknown to the Spanish. Humboldt, prior to 1816, mentions that there is a plain of 
fourteen leagues (forty-two English miles) in extent on the California coast, with an 
alluvial 1 deposit, in which lumps of gold are dispersed, (vide Nueva Espania.) 
The same author states that a lump of gold was found in Choco weighing twenty-five 
pounds, and that another was obtained near La Paz, in Peru, in 1730, which weighed 
forty-two pounds. He gives the annual produce of the gold mines of the Spanish 
American colonies at 25,026 pounds Troy. The gold of Brazil is chiefly washed from 
the sands of rivers and other earthy and unconsolidated deposits, which stretch at 
the foot of a high chain of mountains running nearly parallel to the coast, from 5° 
to 30° of south latitude. From this region nearly 30,000 Portuguese marcs of gold 
are annually exported to Europe, making the annual produce of gold of the gold 
mines of Spanish and Portuguese America, 45,580 pounds Troy; equal to 9,844,280 
American dollars. 

5. Whatever be the extent, value, and permanency of the gold distributed in the 
diluvium or later river deposits of California,— and it cannot be doubted to be 
relatively valuable, we should adopt, in relation to it, a policy which, while it respects 


1 This term was vaguely applied, at the era, to two distinct classes of phenomena. 





152 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


the experience of science, and the results of mining and metallurgy in other countries, 
commends itself to our institutions by its comprehensive and practical features. 

6. It is one of the traits of the metalliferous diluvial deposits of the United States, 
that they spread over extensive areas of surface; that they lie at very considerable 
elevations above the present water-level of adjacent seas, lakes, and rivers; that they 
are, as a consequence, free from the general power of action which these waters, in 
their present state, can exert upon the areas as such; and that the exploration and 
working of the beds is attended with comparatively little labor or expense, so long as 
the effort is confined to the soil. It would appear, in contemplating this question of 
diluvial action, as if it had exerted itself with greater force and violence, and with a 
more degrading power, upon our high lands and summits than in the old world, so as 
to demolish the solid surface of rocks, and break them up, to a greater depth, and to 
scatter their disrupted veins of mineral matter over more extensive districts. 

7. Such are the impressions in examining the remarkable diluvial and injected 
deposits of galena of Missouri, Iowa, and northern Illinois; the gold debris and pebble 
diluvium of the Appalachian spine in the Southern States; and the wide-spread 
copper-boulder diluvium of the basin of Lake Superior. In each of these cases the 
original metal-bearing rocks have been broken down by ancient diluvial action, and 
scattered over wide areas of country. In each case, also, the first discovery, or even¬ 
tual working of these extemporaneous mines, was accompanied by a public excitement, 
hundreds and thousands rushing to the field; and in each case the explorations termi¬ 
nated, after the most extravagant anticipations of easily-got wealth, in tracing the 
origin and supply of the drift deposits to contiguous veins in the undisturbed rocks. 

8. No determinations can be safely made, cl priori, upon the extent and permanent 
value of the gold deposits under consideration. Our actual knowledge of the geography 
and resources of the country is limited. Of its geology and mineralogy, further than 
conclusions can be guessed at, from the loose letters of the day, and the examination 
of the specimens which are named above, and the assays of the mint, we know 
nothing. Its coast latitudes, and the height and distance of its interior positions, are, 
it is believed, accurately described and fixed, and made accessible, together with a 
valuable amount of information collected of its vegetable physiology, and military and 
maritime advantages, by the several officers of the navy and army, who have 
reported and published the results of their observations. 

9. In the geographical memoir accompanying Colonel Fremont’s map, communi¬ 
cated to the Senate, in compliance with its resolutions of the 5th and 15th of June 
last, the Sacramento and San Joacquin Rivers are described as the natural develop¬ 
ment of one valley, whose waters, rising at opposite extremities, meet in its centre, 
and unite their channels before reaching tide-water at the head of the Bay of San 
Francisco. Both rivers are represented as drawing their sources and chief tributaries 
from the Sierra Nevada chain of mountains, through a wide belt of “foot-hills.” 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


153 


These are covered, to a considerable extent, with large oaks, pines, and some other 
deciduous and perennial forest-trees, and afford in their valleys and plains extensive 
and valuable tracts of fertile soil, fit for the purposes of agriculture. 

10. There is no description of the range, dip, or geological constitution or character, 
of the hills and elevations reputed to yield gold; of the soils which rest upon their 
tops, sides, or valleys; or of the rock formations of higher altitudes; this intrepid 
and accurate observer, having confined his attention chiefly to the topographical 
features of the country, and the various phenomena which determine its capacity for 
supporting animal and vegetable life. It is seen, as an incidental feature of his notes, 
that the plains of the Sacramento and San Joaquin are covered with the debris and 
drift soil of higher altitudes, whose deposition may be regarded essentially as the 
result of diluvial, and not river action. In the present state of our information, we 
must regard the native gold, scales and lumps, as one of the elements of this repro¬ 
duced mass. How far they have been transported, is unknown. Whether the beds 
are deep or shallow, extended or limited, has not been observed. Whether the gold 
is found in the valleys or depressions exclusively, or also on the hills or plains, is 
equally unknown. In order to form just -conceptions on the subject, it would be 
desirable also to ascertain whether, if the elevated lands afford gold, it is in the same 
relative proportion to the soil, gravel, and sand, as in the valleys; whether there are 
any appearances, in the dry runs or sides of hills, of the loose materials being in the 
state of a debris, which has not been far removed; or any other indication of the 
proximity of fixed veins. 

11. It is known from the history of the earliest discovery of gold, that volcanic rocks, 
certainly lavas and the newer formations, never yield it; and it cannot, therefore, be 
supposed to come from the vitreous peaks and eminences of the Sierra Nevada. This 
bold mountain chain, which, under several names, extends along the Pacific coast, from 
Mount Elias to the Gulf of California, has probably lifted up, on its western sides, 
the granites, clay-slates, mica-slates, clay-porphyries, and other strata, whose detritus 
and comminuted fragments are found in the Yalley of the Sacramento, in the shape 
of pebbles and sands. Such, at least, in the absence of all observation, may be 
presumed to be the true position of these gold deposits. Colonel Eremont, in 
approaching that part of the Sacramento which is now the theatre of gold washings, 
observed “a yellowish, gravelly soil” along its eastern banks. (Geog. Mem., p. 23.) 
He is speaking of the permanent upland soil, which he states to be 560 feet above the 
level of the sea, and high above the influence of the floods of the rainy season. Here, 
then, is evidence of the diluvial character of the general soil, and of its origin in 
higher positions. Mount Tsashtl, which is stated by him to divide the lower from 
the upper Valley of the Sacramento, is placed by that observer at 14,000 feet above 
the sea; which is nearly the height of Mont Blanc. (Geo. Mem., p. 25.) This stream, 
he observes, falls not less than 2000 feet in twenty miles, in passing, at the base of 

20 


154 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


this mountain, from its upper to its lower Valley. This denotes a marked altitude 
for all its eastern tributaries which flow immediately from the foot of the continuous 
line of the Sierra Nevada. Many of these tributaries are nearly dry, except in the 
rainy season, when they are swelled to torrents, which must exert a powerful action 
upon the loose materials of their beds. 

12. Here we perceive another class of phenomena, which may materially affect the 
value, position, and permanence of the California gold deposits. The whole weight 
of the popular testimony derived from letters,— a species of testimony which, in this, 
feature, may be admitted,—is in favor of the position of the metal in the transported 
soil; nothing but bars, shovels, and pickaxes being necessary to pursue the search. 
There is no affirmation that any person is pursuing a rock-vein, or has employed a 
blast. There is some reason to believe that the scale gold is of the oldest era, and 
that it has been transported the longest distance from its original veins. These 
minuter pieces' approximate, in this respect, to the dust gold of the African coast, 
which has been found along the low, sandy, alluvial shores of that country, for the 
space of 130 leagues, at very great distances below the interior high lands, and without, 
so far as is known, ever having been traced to its original beds. Were the degraded 
inhabitants of that coast required to be paid but a moderate per diem for the time they 
devote in its search, and filling it in the quills of birds to be offered to traders and 
mariners on the coast, it is not probable that the commerce or circulating medium of 
the world would be enriched thereby another aroba. 

13. There is but one further source of testimony respecting the value and position 
of these beds, which does not differ, however, in the general view it presents, from the 
preceding. Colonel R. B. Mason, in his report of the 17th of August last,— that is to 
say, about three months after the first discovery of gold on the Rio de los Ameri¬ 
canos, — visited that location, and describes the position of the gold deposit as consti¬ 
tuting “ the bank close by the stream.” The sides of the hills were covered with 
tents and bush arbors. This deposit, as witnessed in the washings, was made up of 
“ coarse stones,” “ earthy matter,” “ gravel,” and “ gold mixed with a heavy, fine, 
black sand.” This gold “ is in fine, bright scalesbeing, if the preceding views are 
well taken, of the oldest era, or the class of deposits in which the gold is farthest 
removed from its parent bed. In ascending the stream, in its south fork, twenty-five 
miles higher, he found the country became more broken and mountainous, and 
covered with the species of pine [Pinus lambertiana ), the value of which first led to 
the discovery. He was now at the distance of fifty miles from the confluence of this 
stream with the Sacramento; and he estimates the hills at “about 1000 feet above 
the Sacramento Plain.” This was the position of the original discovery, which was 
made in the bottom of the stream, in a newly-washed “bed of mud and gravel,” 
washed out of a mill-race. At a still higher point, on the north banks of the stream 
among the mountains, in the bed of a dry run, he visited another locality, where 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


155 


coarser pieces of gold were found. All the gold was found in the beds or on the 
immediate banks of water-courses, in a gravelly soil. Such deposits had been found 
to yield gold, whenever examined in “ the numerous gullies or ravines that occur in 
that mountain region.” It was invariably “ mixed with the washed gravel, or lodged 
in the crevices of other rocks.” None had been found in its matrix in fixed rocks. 
The country is much broken and intersected in every direction by small streams or 
ravines, in all which, so far as explored, gold had been found. The circle of the 
discoveries was every day enlarging. It had then extended north of the Rio de los 
Americanos to the Bear River, the Yuba, and the los Plumas, or Feather River; from 
the beds and ravines of which gold was brought by the Indians and by others. It 
had also extended south to the Cosumnes, a tributary of the San Joaquin. 

14. Such is the description of an officer who personally visited the principal theatre 
of mining operations, who conversed with the persons of chief note concerned in these 
extemporaneous and precarious searches, and with - the operative diggers of every sort, 
and who has transmitted, as the result of this visit, the several specimens of gold and 
other minerals herein noticed. About seventy miles from south to north, and fifty 
miles from west to east — these having been the directions of discovery, were embraced 
within its extreme points. 1 

15. There is too little known, however, of the geological character, origin, and 
extent of this deposit to determine the principal points upon which its ultimate value 
and permanency may turn. Are we to consider the hill-diluvion as the source whence 
the deposits of gold in the ravines and valleys have been washed by the spontaneous 
action of the rivers and floods of centuries? If so, it is certain that these rich 
deposits will be exhausted in a comparatively short period; and the undisturbed 
elevated tracts of pebble-drift must be relied on to sustain the supply. The proportion 
of gold this elder stratum may yield will, doubtless, be less than the valley and gully 
deposits, and may but moderately reward the laborer for his search, if it reward him 
at all. If, on the contrary, the gorges and valleys which have had their outflow from 
the disintegrated schists and quartz, and the crystalline and granular rock formations 
which probably lie at the foot of the Sierra Nevada — an elevation which, agreeably 
to facts above noticed, is at least two thousand feet above the lower and central waters 
of the Sacramento, then the search must be extended up and across the valleys, in 
order that it may terminate in fixed mines. In any view, careful and scientific exami¬ 
nations are necessary to arrive at just conclusions. 

December, 1848. 


1 Subsequent discoveries, embracing the period up to October, 1850, denote this development of native 
gold to reach, in its extreme points, not less than one thousand miles, namely, from the Gold Mountain in 
S. E. California to Oregon. 




156 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


It appears that the gold is found in valleys of denudation crossing the stratification, 
and that the deposits, which are by the spring freshets rendered alluvial, are renewed 
with the freshets of every season. That these will contain less and less gold every 
season after a period, and finally yield too small a per centage to reward labor, is very 
probable, and nearly certain. At that period, fixed mining in the gold-yielding strata 
with quartz veins must commence. The quartz veins and the gold veins will, from 
recent information, be found one and the same, and their perfect geological identity 
may be relied on, although no gold may be perceptible to the eye, if present at 
all, for distances in the range of the veins. 

As yet we are without a geological account of the district, which is the reason of 
this paper being retained, and printed with these materials. Meanwhile, the subject 
of the Indian claim to remuneration for the territory, is one which should be met on 
grounds of entire justice and benevolence. 

June, 1850. 


C. MINERALOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL NOTICES, DE¬ 
NOTING THE VALUE OP ABORIGINAL TERRITORY. 


1. Tin on the Kansas River, with a sketch. 

2. Wisconsin and Iowa lead ores. 

3. Black oxide of copper of Lake Superior. 

4. Native silver of the drift stratum of Michigan. 

5. Petroleum of the Chickasaw lands. 

6. Artesian borings for salt in the Onondaga plateau. 

7. Geography of the Genesee country of Western New York. 

1. Tin in the Kansas Valley. 

The importance of the subject named in the following letters will furnish the best 
reasons for inserting them. Indicating the existence of so important a metal as Tin, on 
the waters of the Kansas, they supply a hint for exploring the region in question. 

Country of the Potawatomies, 

Old Kansas Agency, January 10th, 1848. 

Sir: — Permit me herewith to enclose you a specimen of American Tin found in 
this region of country; the metal from which the Britannia ware of commerce is 
manufactured. 

I have not, at this remote place, for the want of the necessary re-agents, been able 
to subject it to a rigid analysis, but I believe I have sufficiently tested it to be able 
to pronounce upon its character, and if so, its discovery is a matter of some interest to 
our common country. It exists in great abundance, and passes here for Zinc. Let it 
be tested. 

If I recollect my early reading right, the old tin mines of Cornwall, England, furnish 
the greater part of this metal used in commerce throughout the world. This deposit 
of tin, I presume, is equal to that. I have had some knowledge of the existence of 
these mines for more than ten years past. A beautiful specimen of gold was about 
that time found by my brother-in-law Doctor R. M’Cay, about forty miles north-west 
of this place, and whatever this country may lack, as to timber, &c., it is one of great 
interest and value on account of its mineral resources. 

Should leisure from the duties of my appointment as physician admit of it, I propose 
in the spring to furnish your office with a detailed exhibit of its geological aspects 
and mineralogical indications. 


(157) 


158 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Should you be pleased to acknowledge the receipt of this, please inform me whether 
the person discovering mines on lands unassigned to the Indians west of the state of 
Missouri, is entitled to have a lease as on other lands belonging to the United States. 

P. S.—The metal enclosed was run from the ore in a common melting pan for 
lead J. L. 

Sub-Agency of the Potawatomies. 

Kanzas River, May 15, 1848. 

Sir:—Your favor, desiring that a portion of the ore, from which was smelted 
the metal sent in my former letter, should be sent through the Superintendent of 
Indian affairs, arrived too late to enable me to comply with your request. I have not 
at this time any of the ore on hand, but will procure and send it as soon as practicable. 
The ore in question has been brought to this place by the Kansas Indians, formerly 
residing here, and is represented by them to exist in great quantities where obtained 
by them. From all I can learn from them, they obtain it on the Smoky Hill Fork of 
this river, about one hundred miles west of this place; but they are so superstitious in 
regard to such things, that little reliance can be placed on what they state—they 
have, however, promised to conduct me to the place; whenever I may be able to go. 
My engagements have been such that I have not as yet found time to do so, and may 
not this season. As to the existence in this region of an extensive and very valuable 
deposit of tin ore of a rich quality, I have no doubt. The Kansas blacksmith at this 
place smelted from the ore, in his forge fire, a quantity sufficient to make a large pipe 
tomahawk. I had also in my possession ten years since, a block of tin weighing one 
and a half pounds, smelted in a common log fire. 

So soon as practicable, I will send you the ore in question, with some other ores now 
on hand, found immediately here. 

I have made but little progress in making up data from which to construct a 
geological sketch of the country. I cannot command the time. Could I obtain leave 
of absence from my post for one or two months, in order to ascertain the precise 
locality of the tin mines, I would make such a tour with great pleasure, but otherwise 
cannot attempt it. 

Pub. M. L. School, Indian Territory, 
October 1, 1849. 

Sir: — Some time since I transmitted to your office a specimen of American tin 
found in the Kanzas Valley, and subsequently through the Indian Agent made a 
special request of your predecessor in office, for a permit to explore and work for a set 
time this tin mine, to which he made no reply. 

I now beg leave to call your attention to the subject. For many years I have been 
gathering up information respecting this locality of tin metal; and have at length 









































* 

























«• ‘"V 



























Tlalr 45 
















PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


159 


satisfactorily ascertained its place. Twelve or fifteen years since, a large block of 
this metal, smelted from its ore, was submitted to me for examination. More recently 
the Kansas Indians have brought in the ore; through whom, and by paying for it, 
they have privately revealed the secret. The rough sketch (Plate 43) herewith 
submitted, will give you some knowledge of its location. The deposit of metal in 
the form of an oxyde of tin appears to be immense, perhaps surpassing the old Cornwall 
mines of England. 

Our common country, as you are aware, is almost wholly dependent on foreign 
countries for.its supply of this valuable metal; and its discovery within our reach, and 
on our own soil, must be regarded as a matter of great interest, by all who seek the 
well-being of their country. I feel unwilling, after having labored some, and expended 
something, that this subject should be lost sight of; and I most respectfully beg the 
favor of you, to lay the request, which I now repeat, for a permit to work and explore 
these mines, before the President and proper authorities at Washington, and commu¬ 
nicate to me the result. Should it be deemed (for want of authority) inexpedient to 
grant the request, I will then seek it elsewhere. 

The mine is too remote from the state to be visited by single individuals, being 
immediately within the range of the Pawnee and Camanche war-parties. As you will 
notice, the locality is on the United States’ lands not yet assigned to any of the 
Indian tribes.” 

Thus far our informant. It may be well to add, that neither of the three best 
known species of tin ore can be reduced in an “ordinary smelting-pan.” The red 
oxyde of zinc, discovered in New Jersey, by the late Doctor Bruce, it has been found 
impracticable to separate from the Franklinite, with which it exists, and we may 
not unnaturally look for similar difficulties with the reported western locality of the 
oxyde of tin. The geological sketch, sent by Doctor Lykins, (Plate 43,) indicates 
a country of sandstones, shell-rocks, &c., which are unfavorable to the discovery of 
tin-stone, wood-tin, &c. If this metal exists as an oxyde, that fact will probably 
itself constitute a discovery. We cannot, from what is known in Europe, exactly 
prescribe its associations in the west — such has been the progress of metallic dis¬ 
coveries here; but the geology of the country, so far as it is known, is adverse to 
the theory and anticipations expressed. 

It may also be well to state that, from the known superstitions of the Indians, the 
Kanza account cannot be deemed to be free from all suspicion of insincerity, supersti¬ 
tion, or gross self-interest. Yet the inquiries of our correspondent are deemed entitled 
to notice, and if followed up, however the subject be now distorted, may prove the 
means of mineralogical discoveries of value. 


160 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


2. Wisconsin and Iowa Lead Ore. 

A correspondent, engaged in the practical working of these ores, remarks : — “By 
the box of specimens transmitted, you will be able to judge of the character of these 
valuable ores. The square broken mineral is taken from east and west leads; which 
is of the softest temperature and most easy to smelt; it also produces the most lead,'— 
yielding about 50 per cent, from the log, and about 15 from the ash furnaces. 

The dark smooth pieces are taken from deep clay digging in the vicinity of Meno- 
monie River. This mineral is less productive than the other, yielding only from 40 
to 45 per cent. It is supposed to contain some silver. 

The thin flat pieces—or what is termed sheet mineral—are taken from north and 
south leads. It is usually found in rocky diggings, where the sheet stands perpen¬ 
dicular, and is struck in sinking from six to ten feet. The sheet varies in its thickness, 
it being in some places six or eight inches, and at other places not more than one inch 
thick. 

The average yield of the country is from. 45 to 58 per cent.; of which the log 
furnace yields 43, and the ash furnace 15 per cent.” 

3. Black Oitde of Copper Ore of Lake Superior. 

This valuable ore appears to have pre-existed in the trap-rock veins, which are now 
occupied so extensively by native copper. The volcanic throes by which it was 
exposed to the effects of carbon, while these veins were yet in a state of incalescence, 
may be supposed to have produced the very extraordinary profusion of native copper 
which marks the rocks of this basin. 

In some cases the oxide appears to have been diffused in the rock in small masses, 
awaiting but the fusion of the whole area of the stratum, in which, on cooling, it 
assumed the shape of small metallic globules. The Eagle Harbor and Isle Royal 
Mines are in this condition, and require the whole body of the rock to be crushed, to 
recover these grains. Yery little of the ore is found in its state as an oxide; and 
when so found, it is associated with carbonates of copper. 

Experiments denote its ready reduction and great richness. Trials gave the 
following results: 

A. In a Hessian crucible, luted in the usual way, 1590 grains of the ore, pulverized, 
were treated with borax, common salt, cream of tartar, rosin, and charcoal. The 
result was a button of pure copper, of 1134J grains. 

B. Of 1320 grains of the same ore, treated as above.—the flux and carbonaceous 
matter being in excess, in order to revive the metal and bring out a complete assay,— 
the trial yielded 949 grains of copper. 

C. 2910 grains, treated as before, yielded 2268, and a fraction, grains of metal. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


161 


These three assays, yielding respectively 83, 71, and 78 per cent,, establish the 
quality and value of the ore as exceeding all others of this class of metal known in 
Europe or America. The specimens were all obtained on the main shore, opposite 
the Verde Roche, at Copper Harbor, in 1826. 

The green carbonate, from the same locality, yielded but 61 per cent.; which 
denotes it to be worthless for metallurgic operations. 

4. Native Silver in the Drift Stratum of Michigan. 

This mineral has been found along the open shores of the lower peninsula 
called Sanilac and Tuscola, in the section east and south of Point aux Barques. That 
coast, extending to White Rock, has been noted for its heavy drift stratum of primary 
boulders; the discovery occurs in this stratum. It is in a mass of gneiss veined with 
steatite. Dissolved in nitro-sulphuric acid the precipitate yields, before the blow-pipe, 
the metal in increased splendor, ductility, and specific gravity. 

Since the discovery of this metal in the copper-bearing veins of Lake Superior, 
additional interest is given to the hint furnished by this indication. 

5. Petroleum on the Chickasaw Lands. 

A spring of petroleum, or mineral oil, has been discovered in the Chickasaw country 
west. It occurs at the falls of a beautiful stream near Fort Washita. The petroleum 
exudes from the rock at a point where the latter overhangs the stream. It falls in 
drops which rapidly follow each other, producing an almost continuous small stream 
of the size of a thin reed. It is of a brown color. It possesses the taste, smell, and 
consistence of British oil, from which it, however, differs in its color and effects. 
Mingled with the water, it is drunk by persons affected with chronic rheumatism, and 
also applied by rubbing the parts affected externally. Surprising cures are stated to 
have been effected, in a short time, in pursuing this method. It has been found 
effective in cases of mercurial affections. Patients have been carried there doubled 
up with disease, or emaciated to mere skeletons, who have come away, in a few weeks, 
perfectly cured. But this is for medical men to judge of. 

It may be remarked, in view of this discovery, that this substance, for which we are 
chiefly indebted, as an article of commerce, to the Asiatic continent, has been noticed 
in other parts of our territorial limits. The so called “oil spring” of one of the Seneca 
reservations, in Western New York, has long been known. Its consistence varies 
according to the action upon it of atmospheric air and solar heat. 

This discovery gives us reason to infer the existence of asphaltum, maltha, slaty 
coal, or some other form of bitumen, in the contiguous country, and may be considered 
as adding to the value of the newly-acquired domain of the expatriated Chickasaws. 

21 


162 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


6. Artesian Boring for Salt Water at Clyde, in Ontario 

Cotjnty, New York. 

These borings were commenced under an impression that the saliferous sand-stone, 
which appears to underlie the New York salines, would yield brine of a workable 
strength, at a given depth. They were carried 387 feet into the rock without pro¬ 
ducing the desired results. In this distance 61 specimens were taken, and very 
carefully enveloped in paper, boxed and transmitted by James R. Rees, Esq., of 
Clyde, to whom my acknowledgements are due. The following diagram and observa¬ 
tions embrace the generalizations arising from this effort to penetrate the salt 
rock, and in this form they are contributed to the general stock of our information 
respecting salines. 

It is still the belief of the best-informed persons, that our saline waters are produced 
from rock salt in the bowels of the earth, and that the waters thus impregnated flow 
in certain seams between the different strata, till they find some upward vent which 
forces them to their original height. 


MEMORANDUM OF THE BORING FOR SALT WATER AT CLYDE, COMMENCED IN 

OCTOBER, 1832. 



No. 

i 

at 

105: 

feet. 

No. 

22 

at 

279 

feet. 

No. 

u 

2 

a 

140 

U 

U 

23 

u 

281 

a 

u 

u 

3 

u 

200 

U 

u 

24 

u 

284 

a 

u 

a 

4 

u 

208 

u 

u 

25 

u 

290 

u 

u 

a 

5 

a 

210 

u 

u 

26 

u 

294 

u 

u 

a 

6 

a 

212 

u 

u 

27 

u 

298 

u 

u 

u 

7 

a 

215 

u 

u 

28 

u 

304 

a 

a 

U 

8 

a 

222 

u 

u 

29 

u 

309 

u 

a 

u 

9 

a 

227 

a 

u 

30 

u 

310 

u 

a 

u 

10 


229 

U 

u 

31 

u 

311 

u 

u 

u 

11 

u 

231 

u 

u 

32 

u 

313 

u 

u 

a 

12 

u 

233 

u 

u 

33 

u 

315 

u 

u 

u 

13 

a 

235 

u 






u 

u 

14 

a 

236 

u 

u 

34 

u 

318 

u 

u 

u 

15 

u 

238 

u 

u 

35 

u 

325 

u 

u 

u 

16 

a 

245 

a 

a 

36 

u 

326 

u 

u 

u 

17 

a 

253 

u 

u 

37 

u 

330 

u 

u 

cc 

18 

u 

255 

a 

u 

38 

u 

332 

u 

u 

a 

19 

u 

270 

a 

a 

39 

u 

334 

u 

u 

u 

20 

u 

272 

u 

u 

40 

u 

334 

u 


u 

21 

u 

277 

u 

a 

41 

u 

335 

u 

u 


42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 


at 345 feet. 
“ 347 “ 

“ 348 “ 

“ 349 “ 

“ 350 « 

“ 351 “ 

“ 354 « 

“ 357 “ 

“ 363 « 

“ 364 “ 

“ 367 “ 

“ 368 “ 

“ 370 “ 

“ 371 ££ 
a 379 « 

“ 381 “ 

“ 382 ££ 

££ 383 ££ 

££ 385 ££ 

££ 387 ££ 


















PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


163 


Subsequently to these explorations, Mr. Rees writes, announcing the discovery of 
rock salt, by Mr. John Mead, Jun., at a definite depth. His boring was at a distance 
of thirty-five miles west of Montezuma, on the line of the canal, at a place called 
Lockpit. He passed through a number of thin deposits of salt within the last thirty 
feet. Mr. Mead, whose subsequent death interrupted these experiments, observed 
that twenty-two gallons of this saturated water which he obtained, would make a 
bushel of dry salt. It requires twenty-five gallons, generally. 


7. Geography op the Genesee Country op Western New York. 
■ By Andrew M’Nab, Esq. 

This district of country, both in its geographical features and geological character, 
presents three great Steppes or Terraces, commencing at, and extending longitudinally, 
parallel with the south shore of Lake Ontario, to Pennsylvania. (Lat. 42° N.) The 
first is about ten miles wide, north and south; the famous Ridge Road passing through 
the middle of it. The soil is strictly alluvial; being a mixture of sand, clay, and 
gravel, frequently covered with fine loam, and deep vegetable mould; timbered with 
beech, maple, basswood, and a large growth of hemlock (Canada pine). The surface 
between the Lake and the Ridge inclines gently to the N. N. E. From the Ridge 
Road south, to what is usually called the Mountain Ridge, a more rapid ascent and a 
greater undulation is observable. In this Terrace, the reddish freestone or sandstone 
is frequent, supporting the granular and foetid limestone. Here also occur all the 
salt springs hitherto discovered; sometimes on the north, at other times on the south 
side of the Ridge Road. The iron ore is north of the Road. 

The second Terrace commences at the Mountain Ridge, and stretches south about 
fifteen miles, to the foot of the limestone slope, so distinctly marked from Buffalo to 
Caledonia, — less visible across the Ontario, except, perhaps, at Farmington and 
Phelps,—but reappearing again very distinctly, in Cayuga and Onondaga, where the 
salt springs, plaster beds, and iron ores, are nearly united. The Tonnewanta Swamp 
occupies the highest part of this plain; it being seventy-five feet above the level of 
Lake Erie, and about three hundred and ten feet above Lake Ontario. The only 
streams of any note issuing from it, are Eighteen Mile, Johnson, Oak Orchard, and 
part of Sandy Creek. These have worn down the soil and attained so general an 
inclination of their channel, as to exhibit at this time no great perpendicular fall in 
their whole course. The evidences of recent submersion, the ragged and abraded 
appearance of the limestone, and the dry channels (indicative of a sudden recession 
and violent rush of water) from and around the north-east corner or shore of the 
Tonnewanta, strike the eye with surprise, and force upon the mind a belief that what 
is now a swamp was once a lake. Some of the finny tribes (probably trout of three 


164 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


and four inches long) still inhabit the north-east corner of this great basin. Soil and 
timber, as in the former. Surface, rolling, and lying in parallel ridges. 

The third and last Terrace extends from, and includes, the limestone slope, south, 
to Pennsylvania. The rocks are limestone, (probably the secondary and transition,) 
sandstone, (perhaps the grindstone or grits tone,) and claystone. Here the oldest rocks 
may at least be looked for; as we advance towards the Alleghanian spine, where the 
true primitive no doubt exists. In this Terrace, particularly towards the south side, 
the timber before mentioned prevails, with a considerable portion of pine, and some 
oak. The surface is still more uneven and abrupt; rising into hills of considerable 
elevation, and sinking into deep vales and gulfs. The waters of the St. Lawrence, 
Susquehannah, and Mississippi, divide in Steuben and Alleghany Counties, New York, 
and in Potter County, Pennsylvania; this being the pinnacle of the country. Most 
of the streams rising in, or crossing the Southern Platform , immediately on passing 
over the limestone slope, meet with obstructions from rising ground, and are diverted 
from a direct northerly, to a westerly or easterly course: witness, Tonnewanta, Black, 
Allen, Honeoye, Mud Creek, &c., to Mohawk River. The only exceptions worthy of 
notice, are Genesee and Oswego Rivers. The former rises between the source of 
Alleghany and Susquehannah Rivers, in Pennsylvania, and forces its way, through 
every barrier, to Lake Ontario. Its course at first is supposed to be rapid; forming 
perpendicular falls at various places; at McKay’s Mill one or two great falls occur. 
Banks and bluffs gradually increasing in height; the current sometimes loitering 
through the meanders of fertile open flats; now advancing with a brisk current, over 
gravelly bottom, and then precipitating itself with noise and foam over ledges and 
perpendicular rocks; widening its channel as it descends, and wearing away the 
hardest stones by the incessant attrition of the softest water; thus furnishing a striking 
proof of the effects of perseverance ! The high banks, compressed channel, and lively 
current, continue to Mount Morris and Squaky Hill; where a landscape of unrivalled 
luxuriance and beauty breaks full upon the delighted eye. The Valley of Canascraga 
opens to the right, winding round to the south-east towards Dansville; and to the 
left, the Genesee Valley extends north-east, towards Avon and Rochester; passing 
Geneseo on the right, and Moscow on the left. The deep trough worn down at Mount 
Morris and Squaky Hill, leaves little room to doubt that here, originally, was the fall 
which is now found five or six miles above, at Nunda; a retrogression similar to that 
of the Niagara Falls from Lewistown to Manchester. From Mount Morris and 
Williamsburg, the confluent waters of Genesee River and Canascraga Creek move 
slowly through one of the richest alluvial soils any where to be seen; the face of the 
country on each side gradually subsiding into moderate ridges, gentle slopes, undu¬ 
lating uplands, and extensive natural meadows. After receiving the waters of 
Canesus and Honeoye from the east, and those of Allen and Black Creek from the 
west, with other small tributaries, the majestic Genesee pursues the noiseless tenor of 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


165 


its way to the rapids, about one mile above Rochester, full 10 to 15 feet, and then in 
the distance of two miles after, plunging over three falls, of 96, 10, and 74 feet, 
attains the level of Lake Ontario at Carthage; having worn for itself a channel 
through earth and rock, the hanks of which are now about 200 feet perpendicular; 
the general surface of the country on each side still continuing of a regular slope to 
the lake. It is not a little remarkable, that at the rapids, above Rochester, the face 
of the country is such as admits of diverting the waters of Genesee River through 
the Canal, west, between sixty and seventy miles on a level; and east, on a level and 
inclined plane, to Seneca River. 

The Oswego River drains all the country lying within a semicircle, whose centre is 
near Montezuma, and its radius sweeping from Rome in Oneida to Bloomfield in 
Ontario. After washing this extensive plain, and wandering through the Seneca 
Valley, it has forced a vent northwardly by the Three River Point—pitching over 
the falls, and murmuring on its course over a rocky bottom to the lake. Before the 
disruption of the country comprehending the Thousand Isles, it is probable that Lake 
Ontario covered the Seneca Valley, forming a deep bay up the Cayuga, &c., and having 
its outlet down the Mohawk and Hudson. This, however, is mere hypothesis. The 
Ridge Road commences at Lewiston, a step from the mountain, and diverges east- 
wardly—it is but slightly affected with a few streams, such as Eighteen-Mile, 
Johnson, Oak Orchard, Sandy Creek, &c. The Genesee River and Irondequat Bay 
discompose its uniformity; but immediately east of these, its regular form and direction 
are resumed and continued, until finally destroyed by Sodus Bay. Round the south 
and east side of the bay, some vestiges of the ridge are discernible in the direction 
of Oswego Falls, and probably might be found (passing by Black River high falls, in 
Turin, Lewis County) towards the elevated ground between the St. Lawrence and 
Mohawk Valleys. Neptune, it would seem, had a hand in forming this ridge; but 
here again his mode of operation is quite a mystery. It is composed of sand, gravel, 
and clay, with a light surface-mould. On moving the upper strata, a deep bed of 
clear bluish lake gravel and smooth rounded pebbles and stones appears. Its elevation 
above the adjoining plain and slope is quite moderate, and very uniform—varying 
from two to ten feet—width four to twelve rods — of a regular convex shape. While 
its singular formation furnishes a fruitful subject for geologists to ponder and 
speculate upon — the inhabitants derive incalculable advantages and conveniences 
from its wonderful adaptedness for travel, &c.—for without this natural turnpike, the 
adjoining country, although fertile and pleasant, would long remain without much 
travel or compact settlement. Now the country presents a gratifying view of social 
comfort and rural wealth on each side of this best of roads, lying midway between 
the Erie Canal and Lake Ontario. Of the western district it may justly be said, that 
it is the Garden of New York. 


D. EXISTING GEOLOGICAL ACTION OP THE NORTH 

AMERICAN LAKES. 


1. Fluviatile and drift-action. 

2. Disintegration. 

3. Apparent Tidal phenomena. 

4. Perforated stones, from wave-action. 

5. Temperature of the Lakes. 

6. Crystallization in the North. 

7. Continental abrasion. 

8. Integrity of matter. 

9. Lake refrachin. 

That species of action which is supposed to have brought the surface of the 
earth into its habitable condition is comprised in the era of physical revolutions which 
are long past. By what causes, and according to what laws, these changes were pro¬ 
duced, and their effects on the superposition and relation of strata, constitute no small 
part of the considerations of geology. Seas, rivers, mountains, and plains, are 
conjectured to have been left by those ancient revolutions, all of which preceded the 
historical epoch. It has been observed that the post-diluvial action of rivers flowing 
into the sea, and carrying down the usual accumulations of matter resulting from 
disintegration and gravitation, has added much to the area of their alluvions. Vol¬ 
canic forces are continually exerting an action upon continents and islands; the beds 
of certain rivers are perceived to be elevated; large portions of the shores of the 
ocean curtailed of their limits; and, in this manner, the configuration of the earth 
is subject to large and appreciable alterations. All this is the result of a species of 
action which is very strikingly exemplified by the North American Lakes. 

It is known that the quantity of water on the earth’s surface is much greater in a 
new and forest region, where solar evaporation is hindered, than in old and long 
cultivated countries. No one will pretend that the quantity of water brought down 
by rivers is not diminished by these curtailments of the dominions of the forest. 
There was a time, within the habitable period, when the rivers of this continent ran 
higher than at present. 

1. This existing action is of two kinds, both of which are remarkably exhibited in 
the area of the Lakes; namely, the action of general fluviatile drift or outflow, and the 
action of disintegration and atmospheric phenomena. The Mississippi possesses the 
drift power in a high degree. By its present overflowings it is destined to be always 
raising its bed and banks. It lays the Rocky and the Alleghany Mountains under 

( 166 ) 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


167 


constant tribute for this purpose; and, if the present rate of deposition be maintained, 
the day is not far distant when the vast nascent deposits at its mouth, which are now 
covered with grass and water, will be known as some of the very best rice lands in 
America. Far less amount of labor in forming dykes and embankments than it has 
required to rescue Holland from the German Ocean, would now convert that tract 
of rich river-dri into a fertile and populous region. 

2. Of the second species of action, that arising from disintegration and atmospheric 
phenomena, there is no instance on the same scale as is observed in the Great Lakes. 
I have selected the broad expanse of Lake Superior to exemplify this power. Hun¬ 
dreds of miles of uninterrupted wind and wave-power are here displayed. This 
sheet is one vast reservoir of elemental action: not only its large area and great 
computed depth have served, most fully, to develope this power, but this effect has 
been promoted by the very unequal degree of hardness of the rocky structure of its 
sides and bed; and it is within the scope of modern observation that, owing to this 
action, its boundaries have, under the actual fluctuations of its level, suffered great 
mutations. Being the only one of the series of lakes (with a partial exception in 
favor of Lake Huron) which has primitive borders and Alpine scenery, these effects 
are the more striking, and have imparted to portions of the coast a scenic grandeur, 
and boldness of outline, which are unparalleled. 

This lake may be considered as occupying an interstice between the most northerly 
portions of the great diluvian and sedimentary formations of the Mississippi Valley, and 
the crystalline and vitreous rocks of British America. This ancient line of junction 
may be followed down its outlet, through the Straits of St. Mary’s, into Lake Huron, 
and is continued along parts of its north and north-easterly shores north of the 
fossiliferous strata of the Manatouline chain. Lake Superior is, however, the most 
impressive field of remark, whether we refer to the ancient periods of its volcanic or 
oceanic energies, or the remarkable powers of elementary action still possessed by it. 

The western and northern sections of this lake exhibit the strongest proofs of 
ancient action and upheaval. A colossal dyke of trap appears to have crossed the 
lake about two-thirds of its length from east to west. Admitting, (what appears to be 
very probable,) that the bed of the lake west of this dyke was originally produced by 
the sinking down of the strata, forming an anti-clinal axis, and the consequent 
elevation of its shores, we may attribute to the disturbing force of winds the 
central breach of this barrier, which has been subsequently widened by the ordinary 
force of the waters driven by the strong west and north-west winds, at a period 
when its water-line stood at one of its highest levels; so that, at this time, Isle 
Royal, Beaver Island, Ship Island, and the elevated precipitous range of Keweena 
Point, all of which consist of members of the trap rock, are the only existing monu¬ 
ments of this ancient dyke. The heavy beds of trap boulders east of this point, 
reaching in blocks of large magnitude to St. Mary’s Falls, and the northern shores of 


168 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Lake Huron, strongly denote the probability of such action. Another proof of the 
extensive destruction of the central trap chain, is drawn from its mineralogy. This 
rock, (the trap,) as modern discovery denotes, is, everywhere, the true repository of 
the veins of copper ore, and of native copper, for which the shores of this lake have 
been so long noted. By their prostration, their mineral contents have been scattered 
far and wide, along with other debris, and hence masses of the metal, and its ores, are 
found along portions of the coast, where the strata not only give no indication of 
being metalliferous, but, geologically, forbid the expectation. Hence also the abun¬ 
dance, along parts of the Superior coasts, of fragments and abraded masses of agates, 
zeolites, amethysts, and other imbedded trap minerals, which were originally contained 
in the amygdoloid. 

Action upon the harder rocks and their contents, is still very perceptible, parti¬ 
cularly along the western face of the great point of Keweena, which is now known 
also to be one of the best repositories of native copper and copper ores. 

At numerous points of this coast, the waves have acted on crevices or breaks in the 
stratification, until deep passages have been worn into the coast, and interior bays 
formed, into some of which, vessels of considerable burden can sail; and they form a 
very welcome shelter, in stormy -weather, to the many row-boats, which visit these 
remote points in the prosecution of the fur, fishing, and copper trade. 

But the most extensive scene of the existing energies of this lake, is witnessed 
upon its grauwackes and sandstones, which have been broken up, comminuted into 
fine sand, and piled up in elevated ridges, or spread out over wide plains along its 
southern margin. A coast of winding bays and headlands, which measures, by a 
reduced computation, four hundred and fifty miles, upon this single section , may be 
conjectured to have encountered heavy inroads from waves and currents forced across 
the lake by north winds, or acting diagonally from the north-east, or north-west. By 
far the most extensive field of this action occurs between the easterly termination of 
the crystalline series of rocks, at, and near Granite Point, and their reappearance in 
the elevated mountain ranges of Qros Cape, at the head of St. Mary’s straits. The 
vast sand dunes, on this section, to which the French couriers du hois applied the 
name of Les Crandes Sables, constitute a most unique and picturesque object. Their 
perfect aridity, and great height above the lake, which has been computed at three 
hundred feet, and the general parallelism of the tops of the series of hills, strongly 
fix attention. These elevations are found, however, to rest on beds of clay, loam, 
and gravel, of a compact structure, and to be only buried beneath a coating or upper 
stratum, of loose yellow sand, which has been, manifestly, washed up by the waves, 
and driven land-ward by the winds. Tempests of sand are thus formed, which spread 
inland, bury or kill the tallest trees, and carry destruction and desolation in their 
track. Such is also the lake action of Huron and Michigan, the two next descending 
of the series of the lakes. Dunes are at first formed, which spread inland, carrying 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


169 


sterility over many thousands of acres of land, formerly fertile, and well wooded; 
and the tendency of this peculiar atmospheric formation is constantly to extend its 
limits, and arrest the progress of vegetation. 

Another effect of this sand-drift is, by obstructions of the water-courses, to form 
ponds and lagoons, at the temporary or fixed points of their termini, on the arable 
land, and thus to destroy, and render unfit for the use of man, other large belts of 
country; besides which, these arrested waters are the prolific sources of noxious, vapors, 
generating extensive disease in the vicinity. Evidence of the comparatively recent 
era of this atmospheric formation is seen in the prostrated and buried trees, fresh¬ 
water shells, and other organic substances, in a perfectly unaltered state, which are, 
in some localities, noticed in digging at great depths, and sometimes exposed by recent 
eruptions of the waves. Such are the evidences on the east shores of Lake Michigan, 
between St. Joseph’s and Grand Traverse Bay. 

Another formation, due to lake action, and not to diluvial action, which cannot be 
mistaken, but of earlier age, is found in the large sandy plains along the lake shore, 
as between the Takwymenon, on Lake Superior, and Grand Sables. These plains bear 
a growth of pines, poplars, and birch, which but slightly conceal their comparatively 
recent origin. On examining and penetrating these tracts, ridges of sand occur, lying 
in win-rows, as if recently formed by the winds and waves. The depressions between 
these often embody water in the shape of small lakes, ponds, and marshes, which 
constitute the favorite retreat of the small fur-bearing animals. 

The power of attrition possessed by Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes is so 
complete, upon the sandstone series, as to allow full scope to the principle of gravita¬ 
tion in the re-arrangement' of the comminuted and upheaved materials. Large 
portions of the magnetic oxyde of iron exist in the northern sandstones. As these 
surcharged strata are ground down, in the great laboratory of the Lakes, this oxyde 
is liberated from its silicious connection, and reproduced upon the shore in separate and 
pure beds of iron-sand, which are, not unfrequently, a foot in thickness, and line the 
beach for miles. Such is the appearance of the coasts at Nezhoda and Mesacoda 
rivers. 

A remarkable appearance has been produced at the Presque Isle river, which attests 
the power of attrition possessed by the waters of that stream. The river, within half 
a mile of its mouth, drops into a vast pot-hole of grauwacke rock, by a fall of about 
sixty or seventy feet. This cavity is eighty feet over, and in the summer season, 
when the water is low, produces an astounding spectacle of a striking cast. By going 
a little higher, the river is seen to have worn its bed for a depth of more than a 
hundred feet, perpendicularly, into the same rock. 

The actual process, both of degradation and resistance, in the lighter colored and 
non-metallic sandstones, is nowhere better observed, perhaps, than along the walled 
and abraded coast locally known under the name of the Pictured Bocks. About 
22 


170 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


twelve miles of this mural coast is most completely fretted and riddled into curious 
architectural forms and caves, by the force of the equinoctial gales. Colossal caverns, 
into which large boats can enter, are formed under the impending rock, and it requires 
but little aid from the imagination, in passing along these shores, to behold, in their 
head-lands, and rounded columns, and toppling pinacles, the most imposing array of 
ancient ruins. 

The annexed view (Plate 44) is taken, looking outw.ardly, from one of the principal 
caverns; it was sketched while seated in a twelve-oared barge, within the principal or 
labyrinthian cavern west pf ,the point called Doric Rock. 

It may be mentioned, before closing this paper, that there are several phenomena 
in the Lakes, in addition to those named, which deserve future philosophical notice. 

3. Tidal Phenomena. — One of the most general of these is the appearance of a 
tidal current in the Straits of Michillimackinac, and the several points along the chain 
of lake waters, where bays intersect the main mass; as well as in the effect produced 
in the general levels of the surface. The cause of this has been but imperfectly 
investigated, but it appears to be due to the currents of wind as affected by general 
problems of temperature. 

4. Perforated Stones. — The striking effect, resembling a reacting current, of the 
mass of Lakes Huron and Michigan, was early noticed. That this effect is not 
confined to the surface alone, but affects deeper masses of the water, appears to be 
proved by curious detached masses of limestone drawn up in the straits, by the 
fishermen’s nets, from great depths. 

These perforations of the boulders of limestone from the bottom of Lake Huron 
are very curious, and instructive of the mode of aqueous attrition. By examining 
them, it will be perceived that the most of the stone is completely perforated with 
cavities. Some of these extend through the mass; others part way; — a few are 
flattened or irregular. On a more minute inspection, it will be perceived that each 
orifice consists of annular rings; as if the impressions were left by a boring instru¬ 
ment, or, (what may furnish the true solution,) by some small inorganic substance,— 
as a minute pebble, which the water has kept in motion. 

As these curious masses are drawn up from deep water, at 70 to 80 fathoms, in 
those jets of current which are formed by the influx and afflux of the waters of the 
straits, it seems clear that these singular perforations were formed by the oscillatory 
motion of very small pebbles. 

The limestone itself is of the compact semi-crystalline character, which is common 
in Lake Huron, in inferior situations. Some of this compact limestone, examined in 
situ, is found to exhibit small open punctures, as if left by the point of a penknife. 
But these punctures may be supposed to be the impressions of pre-existing crystalline 


Plate 44 




I 
































































. 











PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


171 


matter, now decayed. They seem to owe their forms to minute crystals of the 
sulphate of strontian. 

5. Temperature of the Lakes. —It is found, by experiment, that the rays of light 
passing through transparent bodies of lake-water, which is, of course, fresh water, do 
not in any degree heat them. Is not this phenomenon one cause of the coldness of 
the lake-waters ? The infusion of muriate of soda in sea-water, by giving it the 
properties of absorbing heat, may tend to warm it; and hence, in the tropics, the sea 
is warmer. 

6. Crystallization in the North. — Hitherto, the primitive rocks discovered near 
the shores of Lake Superior have yielded few imbedded minerals, or crystalline 
bodies. But there is reason to suppose that further researches and discoveries will 
disclose them. It is believed that the primitive or crystalline district contains granitic 
beds, highly crystalline in their structure. A mass of drift-granite at Green Bay 
contains a vein of highly crystalline matter, in which the plates of mica are large, 
shining, and distinct, and of a green color. It embraces very beautiful crystals of 
black tourmaline, common garnet, and a green massive mineral, which is apparently 
prase. A block of black mica, observed at Drummond Island, is manifestly brought 
from the primitive district, north or west of that point. It is crystallized in well- 
defined hexahedral prisms. A block of mica slate near Elm Creek, Lake Huron, 
yields staurotide. These, if we admit a current of water, or water bearing ice, as 
the disturbing force, may be supposed to have been transported from the region 
referred to; and indicate a range of crystalline strata in the north and west, quite 
varied and interesting. 

7. Continental Abrasion. — If we are to regard the lakes as a grand geological 
triturating apparatus, converting its loose and shore-rocks into a pulverulent state, it 
may be anticipated that their action on the configuration of the shores will be very 
considerable, in the course of long periods. What is lost in this process in one place, 
from their rock area, is found to augment the quantity of alluvial soil in another; 
which, in time, renders the whole area suitable for agriculture. Thus the plough 
gradually, but surely, follows the tempest and the hurricane; while the absolute 
indestructibility of matter is man’s guarantee under every change. 

8. Integrity of Matter. — The .absolute quantity and cubical area of material 
matter of these immense areas is still the same. The elements of which they are 
composed are seen to be indestructible. * No change of combination or position is 
seen to take from, or add to, the material aggregate. If physical matter, under the 
force of tempests, could be destroyed, as well as change its forms, there would result an 


172 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


annihilation of a part, or molecule, of the original accretion of elements. Wild as 
their rage sometimes is, casting vessels on high on these Lakes, the entire volume of 
them yet retains its integrity. 

9. Lake Refraction.— The phenomenon of light, as seen on these Lakes, offers a still 
more familiar instance of changes in the position of matter, without adding to, or 
diminishing, its bulk. And in this, as in other departments of physical forms, while 
the instances vary, there are no evidences to show that in the resplendent refractions 
that visit these Lakes—in their curious mirages, and boreal displays, and brilliant 
sunset scenes, there ever was a combination which did not vindicate the wisdom, 
exactitude, and beauty of nature’s laws. 




E. ANTIQUE OSTEOLOGY OF THE MONSTER PERIOD. 


Scarcely a year passes that does not add to the number of localities, of the former 
existence of an animal era in America, attesting great changes. These discoveries 
are not alone confined to the Mississippi Valley, where they were first made. The 
borders of the sea-shore in South Carolina; the great marine deposits of Georgia and 
Alabama; and the clay and alluvial beds of the valleys of the Hudson River, have 
yielded some of the largest specimens of these antique bones; even the uplands of 
Vermont have recently given proofs of this kind. But it is to the valley of the 
Osage, in Missouri, that we are called, more particularly, to look. Speaking of this 
region, a correspondent remarks: 

“ The great West is affording to the learned and curious a vast and varied field for 
speculation in the various departments of science. It is filling the museums and 
cabinets of the world with rare mineralogical and geological specimens, while it is 
affording still more extraordinary and perplexing problems to the naturalist. 

“ The recent discovery of bones by Messrs. Case and Redman, of Warsaw, in the 
Osage Valley, transcends anything of the kind yet offered to the public, both in point 
of number and size. The bones represent a genus of animals long since out of exist¬ 
ence. The age in which they lived is so remote, that even tradition does not reach 
back to it. They were probably contemporary with that race of man which inhabited 
the prairies and forests before the existing Indians; whose history is only told by the 
remains of their castles and fortifications, which were constructed upon scientific prin¬ 
ciples, of which no vestige is found among the aborigines. 

“ The place where these bones were found, is about two miles from town, and is 
familiarly known by the western people as a lick. There are many springs of a 
brackish sulphur water breaking through the ground, which have been resorted to by 
various animals, till there is an acre or more of it excavated to the depth of eight or 
ten feet. The bones were found two or three feet below this surface, imbedded on a 
black gravel. The probability is, that these animals resorted to this place for the salt 
held in solution by the water, and heedlessly plunging themselves into the mire, were 
frequently unable, notwithstanding their gigantic strength, to extricate themselves; 
and thus their remains accumulated to such an amount. 

“ The number of different heads found amounts to seventy or eighty; and the large 
amount of detached teeth shows that a greater number of these monsters have found 
a common grave in this basin. The bones which are found near the head of this 
basin, are in a much better state of preservation than those nearer the outlet. The 
skeletons of various species of animals are found deposited in this basin; as the 

( 173 ) 


1T4 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


buffalo, elk, deer, &c. There are two species only found which are worthy of admi¬ 
ration ; of the one there are but few specimens; only some teeth, and part of the 
maxillary bones in which they were set. These teeth are fissured on the sides, much 
like the elephant’s molar teeth, and smooth on their masticating surface, which 
measures twelve by fourteen inches. The other species of bones, which are great in 
number and stupendous in size, have differently shaped teeth, and out of their superior 
maxillary grow tusks, some of which are twenty-five inches in circumference, and ten 
or twelve feet long. The tusks are not preserved entire. They appear to have been 
the finest quality of ivory. Many of the maxillary bones have the molars entire, 
and tightly retained in their sockets. These molar teeth are eight or nine inches by 
four , or five, on their grinding surface, with deep fissures running across them, in 
which the eminences of the antagonising molar played. This formation of the molar 
of this animal is very different from that of the genus herbivorous, the grinders of 
which have smooth contiguous surfaces. The inferior maxillary is armed with a tusk 
fifteen or twenty inches in length. The femor is six or seven inches in its centre 
diameter, and presents an articulatory surface with the acetabulum of ten or eleven 
inches. The connection of the bone of the fore-leg with the shoulder-blade, presents 
a similarly large articulation. Few of the vertebrae have resisted the corrosion of 
time. They are entirely denuded of their processes, so that we can only observe on 
a few of them the canal for the spinal marrow, which must have been three or four 
inches in diameter. 

“ A striking peculiarity of these bones is, that they have no cavity for marrow, but 
are solid bone. They are not petrified, but are preserved as osseous matter, which is a 
conclusive argument that'they have not been imbedded many centuries. We cannot 
fix the time when these extraordinary animals ceased to be inhabitants of the prairies, 
or what caused the destruction of the whole genus. How could they so violate the 
laws of nature as' to forfeit the existence of their entire class ? This secret will 
probably always be veiled in obscurity. The natural philosopher can find enough 
of curiosity and perplexity on this subject to engage his leisure hours, and the imagi¬ 
native may entertain himself by clothing these mammoth bones with flesh, and 
studying what a figure the other animals of creation presented in the presence of this 
locomotive mountain.” 

The “ study” here referred to requires great care, and a scrupulous reference to the 
conclusions of naturalists at home and abroad, to prevent that “ perplexity” which the 
writer adverts to. Science is simple-minded, slow, and cautious in her steps. It is 
but a few years ago that the proprietor of a western museum visited this locality, and 
paraded one of these gigantic skeletons through the land, under the name of 
“ Missourium.” 

The discoveries, which went to make up the sum of this huge frame of bones, were 
made on the Pomme de Terre branch of the Osage river, in latitude 40°. 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


175 


The largest bones were found in a kind of quicksand about sixteen feet beneath the 
surface, at a spot where a copious spring of water existed. Over this was spread a 
stratum of brown soil with vegetable remains of various kinds, some of which were 
deemed to be tropical. Next on the series of strata, rising, was one of blue clay three 
feet thick, then about ten inches of pebbles, aggregated, then a light blue clay three 
feet thick, then another stratum of gravel, similar in thickness to the first mentioned. 
This was succeeded by three or four feet of yellowish clay; a third layer of gravel, 
and a brownish loamy earth or clay, mingled with pebbles, and bearing a growth of 
oak, maples, and elms. The whole formation appeared to be clearly diluvial. 

I visited this skeleton after it had been set up at Egyptian Hall, in Piccadilly, 
London. It was thirty feet long, and fifteen feet high. There was something dispro¬ 
portionate and unnatural about it. By its great length of body, and enormous claws, 
it appeared, at first sight, to be a gigantic specimen of the megalonyx, with the head 
and tusks of a mastodon. There was also something that excited incredulity in the 
arrangement of the tusks. It was certainly a most gigantic specimen of the American 
faunae, and excited great interest as such. But, aside from its great size, there was 
nothing new in the species. Mr. Owen, the British fossilist, decided it, from the teeth, 
to be a mastodon. 


F. AN ABORIGINAL PALLADIUM, AS EXHIBITED IN 
THE ONEIDA STONE. 


Characteristic traits, in the history of races, often develop themselves in connection 
with the general or local features of a country, or even with some minor object in its 
natural history. There is a remarkable instance of this development of aboriginal 
mind in the history of the Oneidas. 

This tribe derives its name from a celebrated stone, (a view of which is annexed, 
Plate 49,) which lies partly imbedded in the soil, on one of the highest eminences in 
the territory formerly occupied by that tribe, in Western New York. This ancient 
and long-remembered object in the surface geology of the country, belongs to the 
erratic-block group, and has never been touched by the hand of the sculptor or 
engraver. It is indissolubly associated with their early history and origin, and is 
spoken of, in their traditions, as if it were the Palladium of their liberties, and the 
symbolical record of their very nationality. Unlike the statue of Pallas, which fell 
from heaven, and upon which the preservation of Troy was believed to depend, the 
Oneida Stone was never supported by so imaginative a theory, but, like the Trojan 
statue, it was identified with their safety, their origin, and their name. It was the 
silent witness of their first association as a tribe. Around it their sachems sat in 
solemn council. Around it, their warriors marched in martial file, before setting out 
on the war-path, and it was here that they recited their warlike deeds, and uttered 
their shouts of defiance. From this eminence they watched, as an eagle from her 
eyrie, the first approaches of an enemy; and to this spot they rushed in alarm, and 
lit up their beacon-fires to arouse their warriors, whenever they received news of 
hostile footsteps in their land. They were called Oneidas, from Oneota, the name of 
this stone, — the original word, as still preserved by the tribe, which signifies the 
People of the Stone, or, by a metaphor, the People who sprang from the Stone. A 
stone was the symbol of their collective nationality, although the tribe was composed, 
like the other Iroquois cantons, of individuals of the clans of the Turtle, the Bear, 
and the Wolf, and other totemic bearings. They were early renowned, among the 
tribes, for their wisdom in council, bravery in war, and skill in hunting; and it is yet 
remembered that, when the Adirondack and other enemies found their trail and foot¬ 
marks in the forest, they fled in fear, exclaiming, “ It is the track of the Oneida!” 
To note this discovery, it was customary with the enemy to cut down a sapling to 
within two or three feet of the ground, and peel its bark cleanly off, so as to present 
a white surface to attract notice. They then laid a stone on the top. This was the 
well-known symbol of the Oneida, and was used as a warning to the absent members 
of the scouting party who might fall on the same trail. 


(176) 









































































































































































I 



I 

































177 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The frequent allusion to the Oneida Stone in old writers upon the Indian customs, 
and its absolute Palladic value in their history, induced me to visit it, with Oneida 
guides, in the summer of 1845, and it is the fact of this visit that leads me to offer 
this brief notice of it. 

I found the stone to be a boulder of syenite, imbedded firmly in the drift 
stratum, upon the apex of one of the most elevated Yonondas or hills in that part 
of the country. Its composition is feldspar, quartz, and hornblende, with some traces 
of an apparently epedotic mineral, in which respects it resembles (mineralogically) 
the very barren character of the northern syenites. Its shape is irregularly orbicular, 
and its surface bears evident marks of that species of abrasion common to primary 
boulders which are found at considerable distances from their parent beds. It is a 
peculiarity that its surface appears, minutely considered, to be rougher than is often 
found in remotely drifted blocks of this class of rocks, which may, perhaps, be the 
result of ancient fires kindled against its sides. That no such fires have, however, 
been kindled for a very long period, is certain from the traditions of the tribe, who 
have had the seat of their council-fire at Konaloa, or Oneida Castle, ever since the 
discovery of New York by Hudson; and how much earlier, we know not. 1 On 
closely inspecting this stone, minute species of mosses are found to occupy asperities 
in its surface. 

The original selection of the Oneida Stone for the object to which it was consecrated 
by this tribe, was probably the result of accident. Or if we look to remote causes, 
it was the effect of that geological disturbance of the surface which left the drift 
stratum on the very apex of the hill. This hill is the highest prospect-point in the 
country. It was the natural spot for a beacon-fire. The view from it is magnificent. 
From its top the most distant objects can be seen, and a fire raised on this eminence, 
would act as a warning to their hunters and warriors over an immense area east and 
west, north and south. It is the highest hill of a remarkable system of hills, which 
may be called the Oneota Group, ranging through the counties of Oneida, Madison, and 
Sullivan, which throws its waters by the Oriskany, the Oneida, and various outlets 
into the Atlantic through the widely diverging valleys of the St. Lawrence, the 
Hudson, and the Susquehanna. It would be interesting to know its elevation 
above the ocean, in order to show its relation to the leading mountain groups of New 
York, and give accuracy to our interior topography;—an object, it may be said, which 
can never be attained without carrying a line of accurate heights and distances over 
the entire interior of the State. 

It is one of the peculiar features of this hill of the Oneida or Oneota Stone, that its 
apex shelters from the north-east winds — the worst winds of our continent — a fertile 

1 By counting the cortical layers of a black walnut tree, growing in an ancient corn-field near the Stone, the 
place must have been abandoned about A. D. 1550 — fifty-nine years before Hudson’s discovery. — Notes on the 
Iroquois , page 52, Legis. Doc., JY. Y. 

23 



178 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


transverse valley, which was originally covered with groves of butternut and other 
nut wood, having a spring of pure water, which gathers into a pool, and wends its 
way down the valley in a clear brook. In this warm valley, the Oneidas originally 
settled. Here they raised their corn from time immemorial—the woods abounded 
with the deer and bear, and smaller species of game. The surrounding brooks and 
lakes gave them fish, and they appear to have availed themselves of the first intro¬ 
duction of the apple into the continent, to carry its seed to these remote and elevated 
valleys, in which their orchards, on the settlement of the country, were found to cover 
miles of territory. 

At the site of the spring in the valley, there was also found a remarkable stone — 
a block rather than a boulder, consisting of a compact greyish white carbonate of lime, 
which, from the little evidences of abrasion it bears, could not have been transported 
by geological causes, far from its parent bed. This white stone at the spring has 
sometimes been called the Oneida Stone; but I was assured, in repeated instances, by 
Oneidas, and by residents conversant with the Oneida traditions, that the syenite 
boulder on the apex of the hill is the true stone, which the tribe regards as their 
ancient tribal monument. 

I observed other boulders of various character on other parts of the hill, chiefly on 
its eastern declivities, all of which were of moderate size, and bore more or less 
evidence of the drift-abrasion. Nothing, indeed, in the natural history of the country, 
presents a more interesting subject of study than the Oneida drift stratum, which 
covers, as a part of its range, this elevated area of hills. We see here, along with 
the various forms of the sandstones, limestones, and grits, peculiar to the state, and 
the cornutiferous lime-rock and silicious slates of more distant parts, scattered along 
with pebbles of opaque and iron-colored quartz, granites, and porphyries. The origin 
and direction of this drift is a subject of considerable geological moment. Many of 
these boulders belong to the saline group of the sandstone system; a group of rocks 
which developes itself west of the sources of the River Mohawk and the Stanwix 
Summit; reaching, at some points, to the shores of Lake Ontario, and the inferior 
strata of the Genesee and Niagara Rivers. In searching for the direction of this drift, 
it may be well to look in the same general course, although we have not, I believe, 
any known beds of granites and syenites in place, in a north-easterly direction, till 
we reach the region of the ancient Cateracqua, the Kingston of modern days; and 
the Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence River. Turning north-westwardly, we 
find no syenite in place till we reach the barren, desolate track which interposes 
between the north shores of Lake Huron and the south-eastern margin of Lake Supe¬ 
rior. But the syenites of that region, as developed in the range between Gros Cape 
and Gargontwau, are more highly crystalline. The same superior degree of crystal¬ 
lization is observed in the remarkable knobs of syenite which rise, in place, through 
the prairie soil of the Upper Mississippi, at the Peace Rock, above St. Anthony’s Falls; 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


179 


a spot reached by the United States Interior Exploring Expedition of 1820, on the 
28th of July. 1 

Among the boulders of the Oneida drift covering this eminence, I observed a small, 
column-shaped, black rock, standing in the soil, which had so completely the aspect of 
the black Egyptian marble from the Nile, that, for a moment, I fancied a trace of a 
similar silico-argillaceous stratum had been found in America. The illusion was 
sustained by a similar infusion of yellowish coloring matter. A fresh feature, however, 
instantly undeceived me, and disclosed a comparatively soft, argillaceous, sedimentary 
block, veined with a yellowish oxyde, which, lying at a comparatively high altitude, 
and exposed to fierce winds from the north-east, had assumed an exterior color and 
semi-polish quite remarkable. 

But without attempting to trace these boulders to their primary sources in the 
geological system, there can be little question, from general observation, that the 
direction of the Oneida drift is towards the south-west. In this respect it differs but 
little from, if it does not quite correspond with, the general direction of the Massachusetts 
and New England drift, as observed by Dr. Hitchcock. 2 Such is the uniform course 
of the drift observed here, in positions where the force of the movement has not been 
disturbed by leading valleys crossing its course; such as are presented by the Mohawk 
below the Astorenga, or Little Falls, or by the Hudson Yalley below the Highlands. 
In the former case, the heavy blocks of debris have been carried nearly due east; and 
in the latter, directly south. 

These suggestions will denote the position of the Oneida Stone as a member of the 
erratic block group; but I do not desire to merge its historical and antiquarian interest 
in the consideration of its natural history. It is to the tribal origin, history, and 
character of the Oneidas themselves, that this monument is suited to bear its most 
important testimony. Ancient changes in the earth’s surface have manifestly placed 
it here; but as a memento of such mutations, it is not more interesting than thou¬ 
sands and millions of tons of the primary and sedimentary drift which have been 
pressed onward and spread, broad-cast, by a mighty force, over this part of the State. 
But of all these thousands and millions of tons of drifted and scattered rock which 
mark the surface of the northern Atlantic States, — nay, of the whole continent, — 
this block alone, so far as we know, has been selected by one of the aboriginal tribes 
as the symbol of their compact. Piles of loose, small stones, such as that of 
Ochquaga, have been gathered in remembrance of a battle or an heroic act. Mounds 
of earth, whose origin and purport have been strangely mystified, have been piled up 
as objects to designate places of sepulture, of sacrifice, and of worship. Carved shells 
and wampum belts have been exchanged to perpetuate the sanctity of treaties and cove- 


1 Narrative Journal of an Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, 1820. Albany, 1821; 1 vol. 8vo. 

* Vide his Geological Report. 



180 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


nants among a people without letters. But this alone stands on this continent as the 
simple monument of a nation’s origin, power, and name. This alone tells the story 
of a people’s rise; and if we are careful of the fame of a brave and worthy people, 
who fought for us in our struggle for liberty, it will for ages carry their memory on 
to posterity. 

No person can stand on this height, and survey the wide prospect of cultivation and 
the elements of high agricultural and moral civilization, which it now presents, 
without sensations of the most elevated and pleasurable kind. On every side there 
stretches out long vistas of farms, villages, and spires, the lively evidences of a 
high state of manufacturing and industrial affluence. The plough has carried its 
triumphs to the loftiest summit; and the very apex on which the locality of the 
monument, which is the subject of this paper, rests, was covered, at the time of my 
visit, with luxuriant fields of waving grain. Least of all, can the observer view this 
rich scene of industrial opulence, without calling to mind that once proud and 
indomitable race of hunters and warriors, whose name the country bears. That name 
has become, indeed, their best monument—quadruply borne, as it is, by a broad 
county—a spacious and beautiful lake — a rich stream and valley, and a thriving 
village which marks the site of the ancient castle. But all that marked the aboriginal 
state of the Oneida prosperity and power has passed away. Their independence, 
their pride, their warfare, the objects of their highest ambition and fondest hope, 
were mistaken, and were destined to fall before the footsteps of civilization. Even 
they themselves have submitted to the truths of a higher and better ambition. 
Many of their numbers have taken shelter in the distant valleys of Wisconsin. 
A portion of the tribe has joined the Iroquois settlements in Canada: in both which 
positions, however, they are no longer hunters and warriors, but farmers, mechanics, 
and Christians. The remnant who linger in their beloved valley, have almost entirely 
conformed to the high state of industry and morals around them. Their only ambition 
now is the school, the church, the farm, and the workshop. Not a single trace of 
paganism is left. Not a single member of their compact and industrial community is 
known, who is not a temperate man. Education and industry have performed their 
usual offices; and the State of New York, by a noble magnanimity, and welcome 
of race, worthy of her early and uniform history and character, has, it is believed, 
within late years extended over them the broad shield of her protective laws, her 
school system, and her peculiar and enlarged type of social liberality. 


G. MINNESOTA. 


1. Its Geographical Era. 

2. Aboriginal Nomenclature. 

3. Climate and Meteorology. 

4. Tropical Currents in the Atmosphere. 

5. Medical Considerations. 

6. Elevation of the Country. 

7. Geology of the Sources of the Mississippi. 

8. Cahotian Mountains. 

9. Continental Chain. 

10. Hauteur des Terres. 

11. Stratum of the Beds of Lakes. 

12. Character and Value of the Lakes. 

13. Arid and Sphagneous Tract. 

14. Fur Trade. 

15. Native Quadrupeds. 

16. Reindeer. 

17. Hyena. 

18. Wolf. 

1. When France ceded Louisiana to the United States, she committed the greatest 
geographical blunder in her history, excepting the cession of all New France by Louis 
XV., consequent on the fall of Quebec in 1759. These two events were essential to 
the United States eventually becoming a great and leading power; and their con¬ 
summation was, as it is now seen, the very turning point of it. With a foreign and 
non-cognate race, as Frenchmen are, on our entire northern borders, from sea to sea, 
and the mouth of the Mississippi locked up, that great valley was as completely 
bound as Laocoon in the folds of the serpent. Fortunately, the statesmen of that 
proud and luxurious court were not wise beyond their generation; and Bonaparte, 
when he completed the work by accepting three millions as an equivalent for 
Louisiana, thought a bird in the hand worth two in the bush. “Bush,” indeed! 
which has already given origin to a cluster of States, and by the dispute with Texas, 
(a Spanish blunder, by the way,) has brought along, in its magnificent train, Cali¬ 
fornia and New Mexico. Already the Mississippi River, if we include its eldest 
daughter, the Ohio, has thirteen States upon its waters, not counting Territories; and 
it furnishes an outlet to the commerce of several more. 


C 181 J) 


182 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


“Yet, though no rhyme thy hanks to fame prolong, 

Beyond the warrior’s chaunt, the boatman’s song, 

More happy in thy fate than Ganges’ tide, 

No purblind millions kneel upon thy side. 

Beyond the Nile, beyond the Niger blest, 

No bleeding Parke, no dying Ledyard prest; 

Or if one fate foredoomed the Gaul 1 to bleed, 

Success o’erpaid and cancelled half the deed. 

Not in hot sands, or savage deserts lost; 

A healthful vigor blooms along thy coast, 

And, ever blest above the orient train, 

No crouching serf here clanks the feudal chain; 

E’en the poor Indian, who, in nature’s pride, 

Serenely scans thy long descending tide, 

Turns, in his thoughts, thy course ’twixt sea and sea, 

And shouts to think that all his tribes are free.” 

Minnesota is the last legislative creation upon its waters, and bids fair, at no distant 
period, to make one of its noblest states. The area of territory comprised by it is 
computed by Mr. Darby at a fraction under 200,000 square miles; and it would be 
ample in area for the formation of three large states, facing respectively the Missis¬ 
sippi and Missouri Rivers, including the residuary portion of Wisconsin, of some 
20,000 square miles, which, in consequence of the ordinance of 1787, can never be 
incorporated into a state by itself; and comprehending also the large area lying above 
the mouth of the De Corbeau River, which is, in a measure, sphagneous or arid. For 
this we may deduct, perhaps, 50,000 square miles. This would swell the arable 
area to the compass of three states of 60,000, or four states of 45,000 square miles 
each. 

Taking the distance on the Mississippi, west, from the influx of the upper Iowa 
River to that of the Crow Wing, it cannot be less than 500 geographical miles. The 
quality of the soil between these points, reaching west indefinitely, which is at present 
Sioux and Chippewa territory, is of the richest kind of uplands and river-bottom, 
containing a mixture of woodland and prairie, and is well adapted to all the cereal 
grains. The zea maize is raised in great perfection in the valley of Red River, and of 
Great Lake Winnipec, which is north-west of the Mississippi. In the settlements of Lord 
Selkirk the grain crops are unfailing, and are only affected by floods or other casualties. 

In speaking of the agricultural advantages of the territory, and of its soil and 
climate, allusion is chiefly had to the area south of Crow Wing River, and also to the 
region on the left bank of the river, between Sandy Lake or Comtaguma, Mille Lac, 
and the Rum and St. Croix Rivers. A territory, indeed, which gives origin to the 
Mississippi, and furnishes a thousand miles of her banks, on the right and left, can 
neither be small nor obscure. Such is Minnesota. 


1 La Salle. 






PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


188 


2. The first subject that demands attention in the new territory, is the name. It 
has been frequently asked whether this soft and harmonious name be Indian ; and if 
so, in what language or idiom? We have the authority of some practical inquirers 
in this matter, for saying that it is a compound Dacota or Sioux word, describing the 
peculiar clouded color of the water of the St. Peter’s River. Whether this pheno¬ 
menon be due to sedimentary blue clays brought down from its tributaries; to leaves 
settled in its bed; to thick masses of foliage overhanging its banks, under the influence 
of atmospheric refraction, or the influx of the Mississippi waters in its flood, is 
uncertain. But the Dacotas, who live on its banks, were early to notice it as a char¬ 
acteristic. feature, and have embodied the description in the term Minnesota; Min 
simply signifying, in the Sioux language, water. The term for river, wah-ta-paJi, 
which the natives use as a noun-prefix, is properly dropped in adopting the word into 
the English language. 

By the Chippewas, who live north and east of the Dacotas, this river is called 
Oskibugi Seejpi, or the Young Leaf River, in allusion to the early foliage of its forests, 
or premature time of their putting out leaves; while the more boreal regions, occupied 
by them, are still standing in their wintry leaflessness. 

3. Compared, indeed, to the shores of Lake Superior, the valley of the St. Peter’s is 
an Italy, but, to the Saxon and Norman emigrant, who seek the country for its 
capacities of industrial employment, it has a higher value. The whole of southern 
and central Minnesota is eminently suited to the zea maize, and the entire family of 
the cereals. There is no part of the great West better adapted to wheat, corn, and the 
leading staples of Northern agriculture. The St. Peter’s has long been noted, among 
travellers, for its precocious and blooming gardens; and the sylvan basin of Lake 
Pepin, and the valleys of the St. Croix, the Issati, or Rum river, with the St. Francis, 
Corneille, Osaukis, and higher tributaries, are found to be equally rich in their floral 
character and power of vegetation. Profitable agriculture is destined to extend, town¬ 
ship by township, to the De Corbeau; and it must be borne in mind that Indian corn, 
which cannot be cultivated at Sault Ste. Marie , in latitude 46° 30', is raised by the 
Indians annually, and ripens early in August, at the very sources of the Mississippi, 
and at Red Lake, north of them. The latter point is but a few seconds south of north 
latitude 49°. 

Meteorological observations, made at Forts Snelling and Atkinson for many years, 
indicate a favorable climate at the latter post: the maximum heat, for the months of 
May, June, July, and August, 1848, was 82°, 88°, 84°, 81°, respectively; the mean 
temperature, during the same months, being, in their order, 63°, 65°, 71°, 62°, and 
the minimum 36°, 47°, 51°, 51°. Thunder showers are frequent in those latitudes, 
and even on the higher tributaries of the Mississippi. The amount of free electricity 
is thought to produce local currents which mitigate the sultriest days. Thirty-seven 
inches of rain fell at Fort Atkinson in 1848. 


184 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


By observations made at Sandy Lake in July 1820, (vide Nar. Jour. Ex., p. 268,) 
the maximum heat at that lake is shown to be 90°, and the mean temperature between 
the 17th and 24th of the month, 73°, which is a little higher than the entire monthly 
average heat, in 1848, at Fort Atkinson, lying, atmospherically, south. Probably the 
entire month would sink the northern average a couple of degrees, showing a remark¬ 
able equability of summer temperature over a very wide range. 

4. Yolney appears to have been the first observer to notice the prevalence of a 
valley-current from the tropical latitudes up the Mississippi,— a remark in which he 
is sustained, at later dates, by Dr. Drake, of Cincinnati, and Dr. Hildreth, of Marietta. 
It is evident, from the scanty materials of observation we possess, that this gulf-current 
does not spend its force until it has well-nigh reached the southern terminus of the 
Itasca summit. It is certain that the extreme upper Mississippi escapes those icy 
winds from Hudson’s and Baffin’s Bays, which are often felt, during the spring months, 
in northern Michigan and northern Wisconsin. The same latitudes which cross the 
lake country give a milder climate in the valley of the upper Mississippi. One of the 
causes of this phenomenon has probably been noticed above. Others will doubtless be 
found by a scientific scrutiny of its meteorology. The observations being made by 
the government on this topic may be expected to enlighten us. 

5. Longevity must characterize a country without fevers or congestions. Surgeons 
who have been stationed at the military posts of Minnesota and the upper Mississippi, 
give a favorable view of its diseases and their diagnoses, under the effects of the 
climate. Malignant fevers appear seldom or never to originate in longitudes north of 
about 44°. It is also known that the cholera, which in a single instance, in 1832, 
was carried by steamboat as high as 46°, at Michillimackinac, did not spread at that 
sanitary point, but was confined south of the general latitude of 44°. This point is, 
according to the late Doctor Forrey, very nearly the northern curve of the isothermal 
line. Both Green Bay on the east, and Prairie du Chien on the west, escaped its 
ravages. So far, however, as fevers and malignant diseases have been locally com¬ 
pared, there is a decided tendency in their development, to pass north of the lake 
latitudes, in the Mississippi Yalley. 

6. Both banks of the Mississippi, within the boundaries of Minnesota, are quite 
elevated. This elevation is rocky and often precipitous, at the river’s brink, as high as 
St. Anthony’s Falls. Above that point, which is, according to Nicolet, in latitude 44° 
58' 40", a succession of elevated plains, with forests of the drift stratum, come in, 
and characterize both banks, as far up as Sandy Lake, and, with intermissions, quite 
to the falls of Puckaguma. The consequence of this elevation is, that its waters, 
which reveal themselves abundantly in pure springs, lakes, and streams, flow into 
the Mississippi with rapid currents and cascades, presenting numerous seats for 
hydraulic works. The pine forests of Minnesota may be readily converted into lumber 
to supply the central and lower portions of the Mississippi. The falls of the St. 




PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


185 


Croix, of the Chippewa, and other tributary streams, have already been occupied, in 
part, with saw-mills. At the Falls of St. Anthony, where the Mississippi, agreeably to 
the measurement of Captain S. Eastman, U. S. A., drops twenty feet perpendicularly, 
with strong rapids above and below, its power may be thrown, by a series of mill- 
canals, upon almost any amount of machinery. This point, which is distant nine 
hundred miles above St. Louis, and about 2200 miles from the Gulf, is the true head 
of steamboat navigation of heavy tonnage, and must become an important manufac¬ 
turing city and point of transhipment. In a future state of the country, steamboats 
of moderate tonnage may be built above the falls, to run during the freshets, as high 
as Comtaguma, or Sandy Lake, and Puckaguma. They may also ascend the De 
Corbeau to the mouth of Leaf River. 

7. The topography and general geography of Minnesota cannot be well understood 
without giving full prominence to the character, course, and origin of the Mississippi. 
Geologically considered, the Mississippi River originates in the erratic block-group or 
drift stratum of the north, in longitude 18° west of Washington, and north latitude 
47° 13' 35", agreeably to Mr. Nicolet. This stratum develops itself in a prominent 
range of sand-hills, once probably naked ocean dunes, which throw out copious springs 
of the purest water on all sides. These infant sources of the “father of rivers” 
first gather themselves together in a handsome lake, called Itasca, of some five to 
seven miles in length, whose shores are surrounded with deciduous trees. The scene 
is one of picturesque beauty. From this lake, the Mississippi sets out on its 
wonderful course of more than 3000 miles to the Gulf, by an outlet sixteen feet 
wide, with a depth of fourteen inches—making a body of pure crystal water, gliding 
rapidly over a sandy and pebbly bed, in which the traveller, as he shoots along in his 
canoe, can see the broken white and pearly valves of the unio and other fresh-water 
shells of the lake scattered in its bed. 

8. Thus much topographically. This great northern drift stratum, which consti¬ 
tutes the height of land, rests on a broad range of the crystalline or primary rocks 
which cross the continent between latitudes about 44° to 50°, linking together the 
mountain groups of the Labrador and Hudson’s Bay coasts with the Rocky Mountains. 
To these broad ranges and mountain-outbreaks, as they are developed west of James’ 
Bay and north of Lake Superior, Bouchette, the geographer of Canada, has applied 
the name of Cabotian Mountains, in allusion to the true discoverer of North America. 

9. Agreeably to this theory, the St. Louis river, which falls into the head of Lake 
Superior, presenting a series of magnificent views and cataracts, passes transversely 
through the Cabotian chain; while the Rainy Lakes and the Lake of the Woods lie 
north of it. This range of transverse rocks, which, with all its diluvial and drift 
covering, does not rise over 1600 feet above the ocean, may be said by its “ rocky 
roots” to continue west from the Itasca highlands, and to divide the waters of the 
Upper Missouri from those of the Saskatchiwine, and Assinabom Valleys of Red River 

24 


186 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


and Lake Winnipec. The natural line of elevations denotes this. It is, in fine, the 
transverse Wasserschied, between the Hudson’s Bay and the St. Lawrence waters and 
those of the Gulf of Mexico. 

10. It is impossible to visit this remote summit, to which the French apply the 
term Hauteur des Terres, and examine its oceanic dunes, gravel-beds, and sand-plains, 
without supposing the present condition of its surface to be the result of oceanic 
currents, however produced, which, at a very ancient period of the globe’s history, 
poured their waters over these heights, surcharged with the ruins of broken strata 
and disrupted formations which once spread over the area north of them. 1 We observe, 
amidst the heavy beds of comminuted sandstones and slates, and of primary rocks 
from remoter positions, wide-spread evidences of trap and greenstones, grauwackes 
and amygdoloids, which tell of the prostration of volcanic formations, with all their 
peculiar imbedded minerals and vein-stones. Of these latter, the harder varieties of 
the quartz family, with zoned agates, and, less abundantly, chalcedonies and carnelians, 
are found both in the dry drift at the highest elevations, and about the shores of lakes 
and streams. These masses have been carried, by fluviatile action, down the Missis¬ 
sippi Yalley to great distances, suffering more and more from the force of attrition. 
They are often picked up, very well characterized, on the shores of Lake Pepin. I 
have traced them as low as St. Louis and Herculaneum. 2 

11. It is a peculiar feature of the Itasca summit, and its various steppes, that it 
has a sub-soil, or deposit of an aluminous or impervious character, resting below the 
various sand-plains, loams, and loose carbonaceous and lacustrine beds. This appears 
to be the true cause of the retention, at those heights, of a vast body of water, in the 
shape of lakes, which are of every imaginable size, from half a mile to thirty miles 
in length. It will not be too much, perhaps, to say that ten thousand of these lakes 
exist within our borders, north of latitude 44°. These lakes in the drift stratum, so 
remarkable for their number, consist of transparent and, very often, very pure water; 
the temperature of which is generally 8° to 10° below that of the atmosphere. (Yide 
Nar. Jour. Ex. of 1820, p. 168.) They are supposed, in several districts^ to have a 
subterraneous communication with each other, whereby their purity and liveliness is 
preserved without visible outlets. The water that sustains such a system of lakes 
and rivers is, manifestly, the result of the condensed vapors of the ocean, wafted from 
warmer latitudes to these broad eminences. 

12. The lakes of the sub-mountain region of Minnesota may all be considered as 
falling under two classes, those with clean sandy shores, and a considerable depth, and 
those whose margins consist of a sphagneous character, and abound in the zizania 
palustris, or wild rice, and are comparatively shallow. The former yield various 


1 Geological Report of the Expedition of 1820, War Office, Washington, 

2 Yiew of the Lead Mines of Missouri, 1819. 





PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


187 


species of fish; the latter serve not only as a store-house of grain for the natives, who 
gather it in August and September, but they invite myriads of water-fowl into the 
region, and thus prove a double resource to the natives. It is constantly affirmed that 
fish are taken in lakes which have no visible outlet. Some of the larger open lakes 
connected with the Mississippi yield the white fish, which is so celebrated in the 
upper lakes, while in no case has fish of this species ever been found in the Mississippi 
itself. 

13. The country around the sources of the Mississippi, extending to the Lake of 
the Woods, and the old Grand Portage of Lake Superior, is not adapted to profitable 
agriculture. Some portions of it, in the angle west of Lake Superior, extending to 
the Lake of the Woods, and the source of the St. Louis River, are naked rocks, of the 
crystalline and volcanic kinds, and are entirely valueless for the purposes of agriculture. 
Other portions of it, reaching across the actual head-waters of the Mississippi, to 
the high ground of the Otter-tail Lake, and Itasca summit, have a large proportion of 
arid sand-hills and plains, and an almost illimitable number of lakes and Muskeegs . 1 
The proportion of fertile land in this area is rendered less valuable than it otherwise 
would be, from its isolation by waste waters and barrens, and the impracticability of 
connecting the good tracts by roads. West of the Hauteur des Terres the lands are 
fertile, consisting of woods and prairies which are easily traversed. 

14. This region has been considered as a central point for the Fur Trade. It has 
been noted, from the first settlement of Canada, as abounding in the small furred 
animals, whose skins are valuable in commerce. Its sources of supply to the native 
tribes have been important. It has, at the same time, had another singular advantage 
to them from the abundance of the grain called monomin, or rice, by the Chippewa 
Indians, and Psin by the Sioux. Its lakes abound with water-fowl and fish. Its 
forests and valleys yield a sufficiency of the acer saccherinum to enable the natives to 
make maple sugar : and, if the territory of Hudson’s Bay were ceded to the United 
States, it would form a suitable area for an Indian colony. 

15. Besides the beaver, otter, mink, muskrat, fisher and martin, whose furs are 
valuable, it yields many of the larger quadrupeds. There are some portions of it 
where that remarkable animal still exists, which the Indians call moz, and the 
Americans rnoose, the largest of the deer species. This animal, which has nearly the 
strength of the horse, and resembles it in height, is very wary, and quick of hearing. 
The least noise disturbs it, and the Indians hunt it with great care. Its flesh is much 
esteemed by them. The elk, red deer, and common black bear, are common. Its 
western skirts, on the Red river plains, yield the grizzly bear—the lion of the region ., 
if strength be the point at issue. To kill this animal is an object of prime boasting 
with the natives and hunters. 


Geological Report, 1820. 




188 


PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 


16. Reindeer.— Portions of the country yield the carriboo, which is an American 
species of the reindeer—the Cervus Americanus. This beautiful and fleet animal, 
which has a split hoof, is provided with a foot that enables it to spread it over a consi¬ 
derable surface at every step, so as to walk on the surface of the deepest snows. It 
subsists during the winter season on mosses. Its flesh is a most delicious and delicate 
venison, and its skin is dressed by the Indian females for their finest garments. 

17. Hyena. —It is not true, as has been supposed, that the glutton or hyena 
of Europe exists on the sources of the Mississippi. The only species of this family 
found by the hunters, is the wolverine; a vicious animal, which will dig up caches of 
provisions, and commit various depredations. 

18. The Wolf of this region is the cams lupus; well haired, and of good size. To 
the naturalist the region is deeply interesting; but an enumeration of its various pro¬ 
ductions would require more time and space than are at our command. 


V. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, 
AND GOVERNMENT. 


( 189 ) 









V. TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY, 
AND GOVERNMENT 


GENERAL SYNOPSIS. 


1. Preliminary Remarks. 

2. Shoshonee or Snake Nation. 

3. Indians of Oregon, the Rocky Mountains, and the Pacific Coasts; by N. J. Wyeth, Esq. 

4. Comanches and other Indian Tribes of Texas, and the Policy to he pursued respecting 

them; by D. G. Burnet, Esq. 

5. Indian Tribes of New Mexico; by Gov. Charles Bent. 

6. Dacotas of the Mississippi; by Thomas S. Williamson, M. D. 

7. Small-Pox a Scourge to the Indian Race. 

8. Tribes on the Santa Fe Trail, and at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. 

9. History of the Creeks or Muskogees. 

10. Massachusetts Indians. 

11. Former Indian Population of Kentucky. 

12. History of the Menomonies and Chippewas. 

13. Miscotins and Assigunaigs. 

14. Origin and History of the Chickasaws. 

There are about seventy tribes, nearly all of whom are susceptible of being gene¬ 
ralized into five ethnological groups, who have constituted the object of our policy 
and laws, during the three-fourths of a century that the Republic has exercised 
sovereignty over them. No tribe which was in existence in 1776 has become extinct. 
The wars that have been maintained on the frontiers have been purely wars of defence. 
They have never been wars of aggression, the object of which has been, in any sense, 

the acquisition of territory. Nor have the tribes in these contests suffered depopulation. 

(191) 


192 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


The loss of numbers in battle has been light, compared with the slow, heavy, onward 
march of fixed and permanent causes, contravening the maxims of industry and 
population which have marked their long intervals of peace. 

National vanity; the pursuit of the false and exhausting objects of the chase; the 
neglect of agriculture; the pride that has kept young men from learning trades, while 
mechanics were employed to teach them; and the general use of distilled drinks, have 
at all times had a most inauspicious bearing. But, over and above all, the prolonga¬ 
tion of the period of the maxims and customs of Indian society, as they are evinced 
in the disregard of thriftful housewifery by the Indian females; and the fiscal means 
which the tribes have so profusely revelled in, by the annual waste of their cash 
annuities. These have been the great means of their depression and declension in 
every period of our brief history. 

The Indian communities on our borders have not labored for to-morrow. They 
have languished and declined most, not during seasons of war, when civilized nations 
sink in numbers, but during long periods of peace. It is, in truth, the peace-periods 
of the Indian tribes, when their non-industrial and idle character, and their proneness 
to vices which are the bane of every society have had uninterrupted scope, that the 
political economist must mark as peculiarly the depressing eras of their history. 

The final adjustment of the Oregon question added to our public care about sixty 
small tribes, sub-tribes, and clans; of whom we are still imperfectly informed, statisti¬ 
cally and ethnologically, but whose aggregate population at present is, from the latest 
accounts, less than 25,000. The acquisition of Texas, of New Mexico, and of Cali¬ 
fornia, have greatly enlarged the number of tribes within our limits, and the duties 
imposed by the Indian intercourse laws. 

In extending these inquiries to the whole number of tribes within the limits of the 
Union, under these territorial accessions, Congress has greatly enlarged the sphere of 
investigation. The information now submitted on the organization of the tribes, 
comprises a selection of the materials received from each of the leading groups 
scattered over the Union. It will be followed by other matter, on the several heads, 
as soon as it can be digested and prepared for publication. 


1. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 


A. Totemic Organization of the Clans and Tribes. 

B. Patriarchal Family Circles. 

C. Councils. 

D. Tenure of the Chief’s Office. 

E. Popular Element. 

F. Sovereignty of Councils. 

G. Opinion Gathered without a Vote. 

H. Generic Groups of Tribes. 

I. Popular and imposed Names generally Misnomers. 

J. Tribes who have constituted the Subjects of our Policy for Years. 

K. Advantages of Viewing them in Groups which constitute a Unity. 

L. Necessity of authentic Facts to deal with. 

M. Danger of adopting an Artistic Theory of Indian Character. 

N. Proposed to concentrate the View of his History and Condition in Tableaux. 

O. Tribal History and Divisions of the Atlantic Tribes. 

P. Theatre of French Discovery, still Algonquin. 

Q. Iroquois, intrusive into the Algonquin Circle. 

R. Dacota Group. 

S. Muscogees and general Appalachians. 

T. Shoshonees or Fifth Group. 

U. Ungrouped Tribes. 

A. That feature of the organization of tribes which consists of their being associated 
in clans, or what has been more appropriately denominated the totemic tie , may be 
deferred to the full .consideration of their manners and customs. This feature is 
designed rather to produce fraternity and the means of at once recognising it, than 
for any practical operation upon their simple theory of government. 

B. The type of their government is clearly patriarchal. Nothing can be simpler 
or contain less of those principles which writers regard as a compact or agreement, r 
implied or otherwise. Respect for age constitutes its germ. The head of the lodge 
rules by this power, and the effect is precisely commensurate with the fulness and 
perfection of the cause. Opinion gives it all its force, and opinion breaks its power 
as often as it is justly called in question. 

C. Councils are called whenever the matter in hand is more weighty than pertains 
to the affairs of a single lodge or household fraternity. These bodies are made up of 
the old men. The members are called O-gi-mas, by the Algonquins, and by a word 
of similar meaning among all the tribes. Persons who are so associated are no 

25 ( 19S ) 


194 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


longer styled nosas, or fathers, which is the term for the head of the lodge circle. 
The new term of Ogima is therefore a civil cognomen; it is the equivalent term for 
magistrate. 

D. Ogimas who have distinguished themselves for wisdom, good counsel, or eloquence, 
lay the foundation for expecting that office to he continued in their families; and 
where the expectation is not particularly disappointed, or where it is completely 
fulfilled, the office is deemed hereditary. But the office, at every mutation by death, 
receives a new vitality from opinion. If no capacity for good counsel is manifested; 
or if there be no examples of bravery, endurance, or energy of character, in forest 
scenes, the office of a chief becomes merely nominal, and the influence exercised is 
little or nothing. If, on the contrary, there arise among the class of warriors and 
young men daring and resolute men, whether gifted with speaking powers or not, 
opinion at once pushes them on to the chieftains’ seats, and they are, in effect, installed 
and recognised as chiefs. 

E. In the Algonquin tribes the chiefs are the mere exponents of public opinion. 
They are prompted by it on all questions requiring the exercise of any responsibility, 
or which, without much responsibility, are merely new. When so prompted, they feel 
strong. They express themselves with boldness, and frequently go in advance of, or 
concentrate the public voice, in a manner to elicit approbation. They are set forward 
by the warriors and young men as the mouth-piece of their tribes, to utter views 
w^hich depict the Indian as a man whose rights are constantly trenched on by the 
whites; who has suffered many things from the beginning, who endures continued 
trespasses on his lands, and who is the proud defender of the domain of the forest, as 
the resting-place of the bones of his fathers. In all such topics the chief has a free 
range, and will be sure to carry his listeners along with him. 

But let the topic be an internal question — a fiscal, or land question — a question 
of division of any sort, and his power is at an end. He immediately disclaims the 
idea of settling it, without private councils with the warriors and mass of the nation, 
and it is only when he has thus been instructed, that he returns to the council, to 
uphold or defend questions. 

F. In such a government of chiefs and counsels, resides the sovereignty. They 
make peace and war; they conclude treaties and agreements. We treat with them, 
at these open councils, as fully competent to exercise the powers assumed. And we 
uphold the chiefs and councils, as the rightful constituted authority. So far as 
popular opinion, among the tribes, will bear it, the power and authority of the chiefs 
should receive the marked countenance of the government. 

G. Such is the civil organization of the hunter tribes. There is no formal mode of 
expressing opinion, as by a vote, unless it may be termed acclamation. Elections by 
ballot, viva voce, or taking private suffrages in any form, is a characteristic of high 
civilization. The natives never practised it. For such of the semi-civilized tribes as 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


195 


have at the present day adopted written constitutions, and a system of elections, these 
constitutions are referred to. 

H. The North American Indians exist in extensive leading groups, having affinities 
of language and blood. Though there be scarcely one of the tribes of any note, 
which does not possess some peculiarity by which it is readily recognised, among 
themselves, and persons intimate with their customs; yet, when they are attentively 
considered, the generic points of agreement, physical and mental, are such as to 
create little difficulty in their classification. 

I. The tribes within the present area of the United States, and whose ancestors 
were chiefly within the British colonies, have become familiar by their popular names 
of Mohawk, Delaware, Cherokee, and other terms, (generally very different from 
those by which they call themselves,) which bring up associations connected with 
masses of hunter-men, of fixed peculiarities and traits, and living in particular 
geographical districts. 

J. The seventy separate tribes which have rendered themselves familiar to us, in the 
area east of the Rocky Mountains, by their acts since we have known them, embrace 
some of the most intense elements of popular history. Negotiations, ruptures, battles 
and ambuscades—massacres and murders, tend to impart a thrilling excitement to 
the narrative of events; though, as a whole, there is not enough of sustained 
interest, perhaps, the Iroquois excepted, in any single tribe, to render the theme of 
much value, beyond the recital of an historical sketch. 

K. It is by regarding these fragmentary tribes as a race of men who have contended 
for certain objects, and manifested fixed peculiarities of character, and form a unity, 
that the pen of history is hereafter destined to find a fitting theme for one of its 
highest and noblest exercises. There is no want of sympathetic interest in the theme 
itself, since it is perpetually connected with the transactions of the diverse races of 
Europe who have colonized the continent; nor is this interest at all diminished when 
we reflect that the objects of it are likely, in many instances, to disregard the voice 
of philanthropy, letters, and Christianity, or that many of the tribes have already 
perished, while others appear destined to follow their track. No species of 
humanity, or of pious zeal, basing itself on the moral experience of the world, has 
been able to arrest the blind thirst of war; the paralyzing flow of intemperance; or 
the fatal apathy of character, by which so many have met their fate: but, while this 
is seen and acknowledged, there is nothing, in an exalted view of moral effort, to lead 
noble minds to slacken their efforts while there is left a Red man on the continent, 
whose destiny may be exalted. That legislation performs but half its office which is 
not governed by the maxim, that it holds a complete remedy in its hands for every 
legal want or civil and social disorder; and what else is destroying the Indian ? 

L. To render the condition in which the tribes exist apparent, at the present time, 
while the whole area of their former dominion is being cut up and organized into 


196 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


communities, it is essential that we should make our appeal to a body of facts entirely 
authentic in its character. It is with this view that the Census and Statistics are 
commenced, of which the first part is herewith published, and it is with the same view 
that these historical illustrations are given. If the man is to be judged, like all other 
races of men, by his capacities for usefulness and improvement, compared with his 
means of industrial and moral action, and the facilities, or hindrances, that attend 
their use, then it is of the highest importance that we should accumulate facts. 

M. That artistic conception of the Indian character, in which the world has so long 
indulged, is calculated to lead the mind away from the weightier moral problem before 
us. Can he be recovered from his state of barbaric pride and indolence ? Can his 
hatred of labor be surmounted by a pleasing vista of new hopes and excitements ? Is 
there any thing to gratify his ambition, but that which gratified his forefathers’ ambi¬ 
tion, wars, and deeds of hunting? Can his sublimated and unbounded notions of a 
Deity be concentrated and humanized ? 

N. It is proposed, in these papers, to furnish tableaux, or historic materials of the 
man, for future use. They have been gleaned from the recesses of the wilderness; 
they are chiefly contributed by persons who have passed through the severe ordeal of 
frontier life—men who have looked death in the face in various forms. That 
materials thus obtained may lead to the formation of definite and truthful conclusions, 
the tribes, whose customs or peculiar traits are brought into view, are arranged in 
ethnological groups. It has been premised that the Indians exist in such groups. 

O. The first vessels which Sir Walter Raleigh sent out, in 1585, landed among a 
generic stock of people, who are, by writers, denominated Algonquins. It was near 
the southern terminus of their ancient point of territorial dispersion. They were 
divided into numerous tribes, all bearing different names. The diversity of races, so 
utterly opposed to every thing in civil life, led to the extirpation of these first ad¬ 
venturous colonists. The actual founders of Virginia afterwards landed among the 
same people. Lord Baltimore’s colony of Maryland landed among kindred tribes, 
but bearing different names. William Penn located his patent in the midst of an 
ancient and once powerful people, dialects of whose language appeared to have been 
scattered along the entire Atlantic coast at an early day, but which all the tribes 
still sufficiently recognised by their vocabularies as a radical language. Hudson, in 
1609, found branches of the Algonquins, if not of the Delaware type of it, at Man¬ 
hattan; and the English emigrants, in 1620, found a people of kindred language 
spreading throughout New England, and reaching, with changes, such as that of the 
Souriquois, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

P. The French, in 1608, found a people speaking the same generic language, on 
the north banks of the St. Lawrence, between Three Rivers and the site of Quebec. 
They found the same race, at quickly successive periods, at Lake Nepissing, on the 
head of the Ottawa River, and dwelling around the Basins of Lakes Superior, Huron, 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


197 


Michigan, and a part of Erie. They traced them down the Illinois and the Wabash, 
and by the ancient sites of Vincennes and Cahokia, quite to the mouth of the Ohio. 
Half the area of the present Union was thus covered by one group. The French 
missionary writers called it Algonquin, 1 and the term came into early, popular 
use, without designing any injustice to the Lenapees, or Delawares, who appear to 
have claims to great antiquity in this wide-spread family. By the compound term 
“ Algonkin-Lenapee, ’ introduced recently by the late Albert Gallatin, we advance 
nothing in their history; it is still precisely the same people, in every respect what¬ 
ever ; and the phrase is farther subject to objection as embracing a controverted 
theory. A Virginian might, with the same propriety, introduce the term Algonkin- 
Powhatanic. We should still gain nothing but words. 

Q. Into this great circle of the Algonquins, a group of tribes speaking a diverse 
language, called the Five Nations, and then the Six Nations, and by the French the 
Iroquois, had intruded themselves before the landing of the Dutch under Hudson, or 
the English at Plymouth. They appear, from Colden, to have been originally inferior 
to the Algonquins in forest arts, and wars; but, possessing the fertile area of Western 
New York, and being, to a large extent, cultivators of the zea maize, they appear, at 
the date of the colonies, to have been in the course of increase. This was greatly 
facilitated and determined by dropping their internal feuds, and forming a general 
confederacy. Being supplied with fire-arms by the Dutch, they first prevailed against 
the Eries, and afterwards carried their conquests to Sandusky and the Miami of the 
Lakes, to the Illinois, to Michillimackinac, and to Point Iroquois, at the foot of Lake 
Superior, and finally to Montreal itself. This celebrated group has close affinities 
with the Wyandots of the West; with the Tuscaroras, and, apparently, some other 
tribes who formerly inhabited North Carolina; and they will probably be found to 
have affinities in New Mexico and Utah. 

R. West of the Mississippi, the Sioux, or Dacota tribes, furnish the type of language 
for another group of tribes; which embraces the Iowas, the Omahas, Otoes, Missouries, 
Osages, Kansas, Quappas, and a great circle of prairie tribes. 

S. A fourth group is furnished by the Muskogees, or Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
and many minor tribes, of modern or semi-ancient date, who formerly dwelt in the 
Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. This group, as it is made 
up of tribes sub-tending the Appalachian chain, may bear that appellation. These 
four groups cover agricultural America. 

4. The progress of discovery, which is now being prosecuted, has disclosed a fifth 
group in the Comanches, Shoshones, Snakes, Bonacks, and other tribes of the Rocky 
Mountains, the higher Red River, and the Hill country of Texas. To this the term 
of Shoshonee may be applied. 


Recent researches show the Blackfeet to belong to this group. 




198 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


U. Discoveries in Oregon, and in California, Utah, and New Mexico, are in too in¬ 
cipient a state to warrant any grouping of the tribes founded on the type of language. 
The same may be said, to some extent, of the contemplated territory of Nebraska, 
and as to portions of Texas; where inquiries are now being pushed, through the 
medium of language. 

There is an apparent element of a new, and sixth group east of the Rocky 
Mountains in the Chawa, or Cheyenne Indians, agreeably to specimens of language 
and numerals furnished by Lieutenant Abert, U. S. A. 


2. Shoshonee, ok Snake Nation. 

The various tribes and bands of Indians of the Rocky Mountains, south of latitude 
43°, who are known under this general name, occupy the elevated area of the Utah 
basin. They embrace all the territory of the Great South Pass between the Missis¬ 
sippi Valley and the waters of the Columbia, by which the land or caravan communi¬ 
cation with Oregon and California is now, and is destined hereafter to be, maintained. 
Traces of them, in this latitude, are first found in ascending the Sweetwater river of 
the north fork of the Platte, or Nebraska. They spread over the sources of the Green 
River, one of the highest northern branches of the Colorado of California, on the 
summit south of the great Wind river chain of mountains, and thence westward, by 
the Bear river valley, to and down the Snake river, or Lewis fork of the Columbia. 
Under the name of Yampatick-ara, or Root-Eaters, and Bonacks, they occupy, with 
the Utahs, the vast elevated basin of the Great Salt Lake, extending south and west 
to the borders of New Mexico and California. Information recently received denotes 
that the language is spoken by bands in the gold-mine region of the Sacramento. 
They extend down the Sa-ap-tin or Snake river valley, to and north of latitude 44°, 
but this is not the limit to which the nations speaking the Shoshonee language, in its 
several dialects, have spread. Ethnologically, the people speaking it are one of the 
primary stocks of the Rocky Mountain Chain. They are located immediately west 
of the wide-spreading tribes who speak the Dacota language, and south of the sangui¬ 
nary A ts in a-Algo, or Blood and Blackfeet race. The Yampatick-ara are represented 
as timid, degraded, and wretched, without arts, picking a miserable subsistence from 
roots, and other spontaneous means of subsistence, in a barren region, often eating 
larvae, not planting a seed, and wandering for food and shelter amid scenes often as 
rugged as the Alps, or the steeps of the Uralian Chain; yet a closer examination 
denotes that their timidity, degradation, and wretchedness are, measurably, the result 
of untoward circumstances, the improvement of which would raise them to the same 
rank as their more favored kindred and neighbors the Comanches. Whether these 
circumstances are to be favorably changed, as the tribes of these altitudes are brought 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


199 


into closer communication with our settlements, is a matter of uncertainty, and has 
been doubted by observers. That the climate is not itself forbidding to an alpine 
industrial population is proved by the success of the Mormons. Portions of the Alps 
and other highland or mountain areas of Europe, less favorable to human life, are the 
residence of a fixed population. The cereal grains, in the opinion of travellers and 
explorers, whose testimony is now verified, can be raised in the great area of the Salt 
basin. Sheep, goats, and cattle, would thrive upon the rich bunch grass of the sloping 
steeps, where the disintegrated volcanic detritus has produced a soil. The expansive 
power of frost is perpetually lowering those altitudes. The entire summit abounds 
in pure water and a healthful atmosphere, and a high summer temperature at noon¬ 
day. Rains are not wanting, though they are, perhaps, too unfrequent, and there 
seems to be no insuperable obstacle, so far as is known, to the formation of settlements 
at detached and favorable points between the arid and rocky areas, where the arts and 
comforts of life could be successfully and permanently relied on. The dryness of the 
atmosphere, which has been noticed as unfavorable to agriculture, without irrigation, 
is not found, however, to prevent the growth of grass in auspicious locations. To a 
region thus favorable, in a measure, to pasturage and grazing, the existence, in abun¬ 
dance, of rock salt must prove an inestimable advantage. 

As the Shoshonee and Utah nation, who are thus set down in our path westward, is 
destined to come into an almost immediate intercourse with the United States, and 
the government seeks to perform its duty towards them in the best possible manner, 
efforts have been made to obtain the latest and most authentic information respecting 
them, and the character of the wide and elevated regions they inhabit. 

Lewis and Clark, to whom we are indebted for our first notice of this nation, found 
them, under the name of Shoshonees, in the valley and at the source of the Jefferson 
Fork of the Missouri River, which heads, agreeably to their observations, in latitude 
43° 30'. Their old encampments and battle-grounds, where they had been assailed 
and defeated by their enemies, the Pawkees, or Minnetaries, had been passed as far 
north as the mouth of the Jefferson, in latitude 45° 24'. This tribe, who numbered 
about 400 souls, were found to possess horses. The Shoshonees formerly lived, agree¬ 
ably to their own recollections, in the plains, but had been driven by roving Indians 
of the Saskatchawine into the mountains, from which they then rarely sallied. This 
band was deemed a part of the great tribe of Snake Indians; they were found not only 
on the highest altitudes, but on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. On the west of 
the mountains, they occupied the head-waters of the Lewis River, where they subsisted, 
in part, on salmon. The whole number of the nation speaking dialects of the Sho¬ 
shonee language, was vaguely estimated at that date, (1806,) in their table of Indian 
population, at 13,600. They were found scattered, under various names, over many 
degrees of latitude and longitude. When first found by these intrepid explorers on 
the spurs of the Rocky Mountains, they employed the expression of Ah-hi-e ! to signify 


200 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


pleasure at the sight of a white man. Their name for a white man was, however, 
Tabba-bone ; expressions denoting a peculiar language. 

“ Their cold and rugged country,” observe the explorers, “inures them to fatigue; 
their long abstinence makes them support the dangers of mountain warfare; and worn 
down, as we saw them, by the want of sustenance, they had a tierce and adventurous 
look of courage. They suffer the extremes of want; for two-thirds of the year they 
are forced to live in the mountains, passing whole weeks without meat, and with 
nothing to eat but a few fish and roots. Nor can anything be imagined more wretched 
than their condition when the salmon is retiring, when roots are becoming scarce, 
and they have not yet acquired strength to hazard an encounter with their enemies. 
So insensible are they, however, to these calamities, that the Shoshonees are not only 
cheerful, but even gay; and their character, which is more interesting than that of 
any Indians we have seen, has in it much of the dignity of misfortune. In their 
intercourse with strangers, they are frank and communicative; in their dealings 
perfectly fair, and without dishonesty. With their liveliness of temper, they are 
fond of gaudy dresses, amusements, and games of hazard, and, like most Indians, 
delight in boasting of their martial exploits.” 

Such is the account given of the most northerly tribe of this people, who have not 
been visited since. Of the tribes living south of them on the same high altitude of 
mountains, far less favorable accounts have been given. Mr. Hale, the ethnographer 
of the United States Exploring Expedition, takes but little notice of this leading 
nation of the mountains, their relations, languages, or population; which is probably 
owing to their remote and inaccessible position. Fremont, who approached the moun¬ 
tains in north latitude about 42°, came among those bands of the Shoshonee stock 
who possess no horses, live chiefly on roots, and present the most depressed type of 
their condition. Accuracy, in relation to our knowledge of the topography of those 
regions, and, incidentally, of the tribes inhabiting it, begins with the exploratory jour¬ 
neys of this officer. He ascended the mountains from the north fork of the Nebraska 
or Platte, through the Sweet-water Valley, which carried him, by a gentle and almost 
imperceptible ascent, to the South Pass. Here, at an altitude of 7000 feet above the 
sea, in longitude 109°, and latitude a little north of 42°, he found himself amongst 
the Shoshonees, of whom he had observed traces in the Sweet-water Valley. He 
had now advanced 900 miles from Westport at the mouth of the Kansas. In his sepa¬ 
rate topographical sheet-maps, published in 1846, he inscribes the words “ War-ground 
of the Snakes and Sioux Indians,” between the Red Buttes of the north fork of the 
Platte, and the junction of the Big Sandy Fork of the Green or Colorado of California. 
We are thus apprized of the fact that the Shoshonees or Snakes have bands of the 
great Dacota family for their enemies at the eastern foot of the mountains. The 
distance between the extremes of the two points thus marked, is 192 miles; in passing 


201 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 

over which, but few. Indians were met, but the traveller in these regions is obliged to 
keep on his guard, as the district is liable to the periodical inroads of both parties. 

As the Sweet-water valley is probably destined to be the principal land route from 
the Mississippi Valley to Oregon, its geographical character and capacities for sustaining 
animals and men, may be appropriately mentioned. Fremont describes it as “a sandy 
plain 120 miles long,”—and again, as a valley five miles wide, with a handsome 
mountain stream of pure water, its immediate borders having a good soil, with 
abundance of soft green grass.” The valley is well defined. Its northern sides consist 
ofridges and masses of naked granite, without vegetationIts southern borders 
are crowned with the heights of the Sweet-water mountains. He was fourteen days, 
including necessary stops, in ascending from a little below its mouth to the summit of 
the South Pass, where he immediately fell upon the remote waters of the Colorado. 
The distance from water to water, was less than five miles. The ascent was easy, 
and the pass without peculiar difficulty. 

Assuming the Snake or Shoshonee territories to begin at the mouth of the Sweet¬ 
water, which is probably as far east as they ever venture in war, the people speaking 
dialects of this language, spread over the entire summit of the mountains to and down 
the Snake River or Lewis’ fork of the Columbia, to latitude about 44° 30'”—say, the 
dividing highlands between the Burnt and Powder River of Lewis’ fork, where they 
are, for the last time, noticed. This point is about 650 miles below Fort Hall. The 
entire distance from the mouth of the Sweet-water, taking the admeasurements from 
Fremont’s sheet-maps, through the Bear River Valley, may be computed to be 750 
miles. About 280 miles of this distance lies across the extreme summit of the 
mountains, from the Table Rock to Fort Hall, and with the eastern moiety of 140 
miles, to the foot of the dividing ridge between the waters of the Colorado and Bear 
River, consists of sandy plains covered with artemisia and a few alpine shrubs. The 
western moiety of 140 miles beyond that ridge, consists of the minor bristling spurs 
of volcanic formation, through one of the ancient fissures in which the Bear River 
winds its way till it pours its tribute southerly into the Great Salt Lake. This lake 
lies in a high geological basin, which has no outlet by rivers to the sea, but it parts 
with its surplus water like the inland streams of Asia and Africa, exclusively by 
evaporation. 

North and south of this great line of demarcation of the Southern Pass — through 
which, population seems destined in our future history to pass—the Shoshonee nation, 
under its various names, extend as far north as the sources of the Missouri, and the 
mouth of Jefferson Fork, in latitude 45° 24'. South and west of the Pass they embrace 
the plains of the Great Salt Lake basin, now incorporated into Utah, and extend into 
California, Arkansas, and a part of Texas. Those of them who have descended 
eastwardly into the Texan plains, at unknown periods of their history, are known 
as Cornanches — a relation which is designated by the ethnological tie of language. 

26 


202 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION 


Dismissing the latter tribe, who, probably, owing to the possession of the horse, 
and living on animal food abundantly supplied by the buffalo, have acquired a distinct 
tribal standing for themselves, and regarding the Shoshonees as mountaineers, who 
derive their best protection from their inaccessible position, it may be doubted whether 
a more impoverished, degraded, and abject Indian nation exists in North America. 
This character does not apply as fully to the Snake Indians, who occupy the upper 
part of the valley of the Shoshonee or Lewis’ fork of the Columbia. These latter 
tribes are periodically subsisted on salmon, coming up from the Pacific, which are 
abundantly taken at the Falls; but at other seasons they have little to distinguish them 
from the mountain bands. The country they inhabit is, for the most part, volcanic, 
with dry and arid sand plains, forming intervening tracts between the pinnacles of 
rock, which are unfavorable to the increase of large game, and yield but little game 
of any kind. As the Snakes have no agricultural industry, they are doomed to 
suffering and depopulation, with the mass of the Indians of Oregon. Even in the 
most favorable and healthy seasons, they have so little physical stamina, that the 
prevalence of fevers, common east of the mountain, has been known to prostrate them 
with the power of an epidemic, or a pestilence. 

Recent information of the Shoshonees, viewed in all their extent and divisions, 
depicts them as doomed to certain depopulation and extinction, unless this doom be 
arrested by a resort to fixed means of industry. Too often, nay, uniformly, the 
advance of civilized nations into the territories of barbarous tribes, has the effect to 
cause depopulation, from the great stimulus to trapping, which adds to their means of 
enjoyment. But not so with them. Their country is bare of the fur-bearing animals. 
The little resources they possess in fish and game, are, as it is seen, quickly wasted. 
Their habits and manners are soon corrupted, and the native vigor of the tribes is 
prostrated, just at the time that their spontaneous means fail, and they are required 
to begin a life of agricultural industry, to save themselves from extinction. Perhaps 
mountains and rocky shelters, and a sparse population, spread over an immense area, 
which is doomed to perpetual sterility, may operate to lengthen out the period of 
these feeble and depressed, but docile and friendly mountaineers. 

In any future purchases from this tribe, with a view to facilitate intercourse 
between the Mississippi Valley and California and Oregon, or to protect the Mormons 
and other incipient settlements on the mountains, the value of the Bear River cannot 
fail to attract attention. This valley lies for 80 miles east to west, directly in the 
route to Fort Hall, and appears to furnish many of the requisites for a mountain 
population. This river is the largest known tributary to the Great Salt Lake. It is 
connected with the geographical system of rivers and creeks of that basin, where 
agriculture has already commenced. It is represented by Fremont as forming “ a 
natural resting and recruiting station for travellers, now and in all time to come. 
The bottoms are extensive, water excellent, timber sufficient, and soil good and well 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


203 


adapted to the grains and grasses suited to such an elevated region. A military post 
and a civilized settlement would be of great value here, and cattle and horses 
would do well where grass and salt so much abound. The Lake will furnish 
exhaustless supplies of salt. All the mountain-sides are covered with a valuable and 
nutritious grass, called bunch grass, from the form in which it grows, which has 
a second growth in the fall. The beasts of the Indians 1 were fat upon it; our own 
found it a good subsistence, and its quantity will sustain any amount of cattle, and 
make this truly a bucolic region.” 

Mr. Nathaniel J. Wyeth, whose replies to some of our queries respecting this people 
we subjoin, spent a number of years in the adventurous Indian trade west of the 
Rocky Mountains. Between 1832 and 1836, he was an agent, or factor, of the 
Hudson’s Bay Company, and built Fort Hall on the head waters of the Lewis, called 
Snake, or Saaptin River by the natives. This gentleman, who is now a resident of 
one of the New England States, exhibits, in the responses with which he has favored 
us, a habit of close observation, which has enabled him, with the aid of his journals, 
to reproduce the various bands of the nation of whose characteristic traits and habits, 
and the natural features and productions of the country they inhabit, we seek to be 
better informed. We need do but little more than ask a candid perusal for his 
statements. 

The object in hand, has been to obtain accurate and reliable accounts of the country 
over which the Shoshonee language prevails, in all its latitudes and longitudes; the 
number of bands into which the nation is divided; their actual means of subsistence; 
their wars and alliances with neighboring tribes; their disposition and feelings towards 
the United States; and the true policy to be pursued respecting them. 


1 This is the first and only intimation we have, that the Indians have “heasts.” 




3. INDIAN TRIBES OF TIIE SOUTH PASS OF THE ROCKY 
MOUNTAINS; THE SALT LAKE BASIN; THE VALLEY 
OF THE GREAT SAAPTIN, OR LEWIS’ RIVER, AND THE 
PACIFIC COASTS OF OREGON. 

BY NATHANIEL J. WYETH, ESQ. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Letter I. — Object of Inquiry. — Period of Residence. 

Letter II. — Question of Affinity of the Shoshonees by Language. — Means of Subsistence.— 
True Name — Bonacks.— Scarcity of Game.— Game and Trapping.—No social Organization 
among the Tribes. — Utter Ignorance. — Introduction of the Horse an Era. — No Cultivation 
whatever.—No Laws. — No Ideas of Rights of Property. — Foot Tribes cannot cope with 
Tribes possessing Horses. — The Horse, therefore, the Cause of Division, and Tribal Organi¬ 
zation. 

Letter III. — Influence of the Introduction of the Horse on the American Tribes. 

Letter IV. — Geography of the Siiaptin River. — Hydrographic Power. — Salmon. — Hot 
Springs abundant.—Fossil Wood.— Blue Limestone.—Reddish Sandstone.—Bitumen.—Coal. 
— Glauber, Epsom, and Common Salts. — Obsidian. — Very dry Atmosphere; consequent 
danger of handling Eire Arms. — Extraordinary range of the Thermometer. — Grazing.— 
Scarcity of Fuel. — Wood alone on the Mountains. 

Letter V. — Implements of the Shoshonees. — Root-Pot. — Bows of Horn artistically made.— 
Obsidian Arrow-Heads; their shape. — Obsidian Knife. — Graining Tools. — Bone Awls.— 
Fish Spears. — Fish Nets. — Boats or Rafts. — Pipes of Fuller’s Earth and Soapstone.— 
Mats resembling the Chinese. — Implement for obtaining Fire by Percussion. 

Letter VI.—Transmitting Remarks on the Snake River Valley, &c. 

Letter VII.— Language of the Shoshonees.— Destitution; eat pounded Bones.—Mildness, and 
unaccountable w T ant of Moral Sense or Accountability.— Murder of Abbot and De Forest.— 
Submissive under Discipline.—Origin at different Eras and from different Parts.—Resemblance 
to Japanese. 

Letter VIII.—Reason for not beginning Geographically.—Breadth of the Inquiry.—A few more 
Shoshonee Words. 

Letter IX.—Valley of the Colorado: its waste Character immediately South of the Salt Lake 
Basin —lying in a Fissure of Basaltic Rock —then barren Sands.—South of Snake River, 
Lignite, Gypsum, Marine Shells.—Coal in North Latitude 40° 30' to 40° 40'.—Geographical 
Data favorable to Settlements in the Mountain Basin.— Grand River Valley favorable to 
grazing, &c. 

Letter X. — Transmitting Accounts of the Bear River Valley, Utah, and the Valley between 
the Blue and Cascade Mountains, Oregon. 


(204) 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


205 


Letter XI.—Value of the Bear River Valley on the Plateau of the Rocky Mountains, as the 
connecting link between the Platte and Lewis Rivers.—Country between the Blue and Cascade 
Mountains, Oregon.—Game, Forest Trees.— Country volcanic.—Conglomerate Rocks, Pumice 
Stones.—Columnar Basalt in chasms.—Two ancient Bones converted to silex, underlying several 
hundred feet of Basaltic Rock.—Other important geological facts.—Climate.—Barren tracts on 
the Columbia.— Immense number of Horses raised and owned by the Indians, in this 
prominently pastoral Valley.—Agricultural advantages less, but still appreciable.— Health. 
— Infection between 1829 and 1836, carried off the Natives. 

Letter XII.—Transmitting Remarks on the Route to Oregon and the improvement of the Indians. 

Letter XIII.— Future Prospects of the Indians west of the Rocky Mountains.— Principles on 
which their Pacification, internal and external, must depend.—Country resembles the Interior 
of Asia, and its Tribes have no actual ownership of the Soil, but rove over it to hunt, steal, 
and murder.— Shoshonees its rightful occupants to the Blue Mountains: then Cayuses and 
Walla-Wallas.—All mere Nomades.—Plan for a line of Posts and pastoral Settlements from 
the Platte to the Columbia River at the Dalles.—These Settlements to consist of Herdsmen, 
Red or White. 

Letter XIV.— Indian Names.— Reasons for them.— The want of Vocabularies, &c. 

Letter XV.— Statistics of the Snakes, Bonacks, and Shoshonees.— Causes of the Increase and 
Decrease, or stationary Population, of Indian Nations.—Periods of War and Hunting counter¬ 
poising each other.—Destruction of Game, a consequence of the egress of civilized Nations.— 
The want of success in attempts to reclaim Savage Tribes adverted to.—The plan of making 
them Herdsmen enforced in relation to these Tribes. — Their Decrease had commenced, inde¬ 
pendently of the effects of Alcoholic Liquors.—None actually used in their Trade, prior to 1837. 


Letter I. 


Cambridge, Mass. 
March 27, 1848. 


Sir : 


Your letter of 21st February ult. was received while I was wholly occupied 
by the operations of business. I beg you will accept this as an apology for so late 
an answer. 

I observe that the information to be elicited was to have been used by the 1st 
February or during the present session of Congress — can it still be useful? it so, I 
will furnish a few remarks in answer, premising that I commenced the Indian trade 
in 1832, and left it in 1836, that my travels were from 40° to 49° north, and from the 
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, having my chief establishments at Fort Hall and 
Wapato Island, and that it will take some little time to collect the facts from the 
original memorandums. 


Very respectfully, 

Your Obedient Servant, 


Nathaniel J. Wyeth. 


Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq., 
Office Indian Affairs. 


20G 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


Letter II. 


Sir: 


April 3d, 1848. 


I have received your ethnological questions, accompanied by your letter of 
the 21st of February last. Circumstances have prevented my attention to the subject 
until this time. 

In imparting what little I know, I shall follow the order in which the questions are 
proposed; omitting those on which my information is deficient. No. 13, “Causes of 
the Multiplication of Tribes.” 

In my intercourse with the bands of Snake Indians at Fort Hall, which I built in 
1834, and while endeavoring to communicate with them for the purposes of trade, my 
attention was struck by the diversity of dialect; not great enough to lead to the 
supposition of a very ancient separation, and yet too great to exist between tribes 
inhabiting the same region. The very limited inquiries that I was able to make, led 
to the belief that the tribes or bands of Snakes recognised a less difference between 
each other, than between themselves and the Blackfeet and Crows, with whom they 
are always at war. 

During these years, the few whites then in that region called the more miserable 
bands Diggers, or Shoshonees. They differ from the other Snakes somewhat in 
language; their condition is much poorer, having no horses, and living chiefly on roots 
and fish from the brooks, with what small game that region affords. I am not quite 
certain, but think their distinctive name among the natives is Sohoshonee ; another 
division of the Snakes are called by themselves and others, Bonacks, or Paunaques. 
They do not seem, radically, to differ from the former; they are more intelligent, and 
better supplied with all the means of Indian independence; horses, lodges, guns, 
knives, &c. &c., and form bands annually to hunt in the buffalo country. 

The region which both these descriptions of Snakes inhabit, extends south from the 
Saaptin or Snake River, as far as the southern end of the Great Salt Lake, and from 
the Rocky to the Blue Mountains, and is nearly a desert; although there are a few 
spots of good soil, it produces the least possible quantity of game. There are no 
buffaloes; elk and deer are very scarce and unknown, except in the mountains. Ante¬ 
lope and big-horn are rare, as also the bear; there are two kinds of rabbits, but they 
are also scarce. In 1832, when I first visited this country, perhaps the beaver and 
otter exceeded all the other game, and they were by no means abundant; at that 
time the Indians had no traps, and therefore could obtain little food from the beaver. 
All the skins of animals killed were used as clothing, even the beaver and otter, and 
furnished so little, that perhaps not more than one-half of their bodies were covered, 
even during the winter, and but few even of those who visited annually the buffalo 
region had skins enough to erect lodges. 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


207 




The paucity of game in this region is, I have little doubt, the cause of the almost 
entire absence of social organization among its inhabitants; no trace of it is ordinarily 
seen among them, except during salmon-time, when a large number of the Snakes resort 
to the rivers, chiefly to the Fishing Falls, and at such places there seems some little 
organization; some person called a chief usually opens a trade or talk, and occasion¬ 
ally gives directions as to times and modes of fishing; and the same is the case with 
the bands who go into the buffalo region. Other than this, I have perceived no ves¬ 
tiges of government among them; I have never known other punishment inflicted 
than personal satisfaction by murder or theft. 

At the time I allude to, our means of communicating with them were very imperfect, 
and mistakes of their meaning might occur. Their first answer to the question of 
“ What is the difference between the Bonacks and Shoshonees ?” if addressed to one 
separate from the other, was, that they were good and the other bad, meaning that 
they would trade beaver with the Whites, while the other would steal from and 
murder them. When they were addressed together they did not, generally, implicate 
each other, but in all cases it was difficult for them to conceive that we were searching 
for the distinctive difference between themselves; and, after making this understood, 
I could never obtain any further information than that the Bonacks had horses, and 
went to hunt buffalo, while the Shoshonees had no horses, and lived on roots and 
fish. 

In examining the cause of separation into tribes of a people so little removed from 
the lowest state of existence, we should examine the original necessities which must 
have produced all social organization. The collection of a family, which may be con¬ 
sidered coeval with individual existence, is of no importance in this instance. The 
combination for the defence of person and property is the point to be examined in this 
case, and beyond this stage the Snakes have not reached. 

Previous to the introduction of the Horse among them, they could have had no 
interest of property requiring organization to protect it, except that of the Salmon 
fisheries, which must have been nearly coeval with their first settlement in the country, 
and which, naturally, would call for some kind of law to render it available. That 
this was their only motive to institute government, I infer from the nature of their 
country, which is too poor to produce any considerable quantity of game, and that no 
cultivation had ever been attempted. It is not probable they would have combined 
to protect property they did not possess, or to secure themselves against enemies who 
could not penetrate into their country for want of subsistence, and also because them¬ 
selves could not remain together in any considerable numbers from the same cause. 

These reasons show a w r ant of motive and power of combination, except in the 
single interest of the Salmon fishery, and convince me that prior to the introduction 
of the horse no other tribal arrangement existed than such as is now seen in the 
management of the Salmon fishery. 


208 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


Since the introduction of horses, the Snakes have probably been in the progress of 
separating into two tribes, those who had most intelligence would obtain them first, 
by the mode of all Indian acquisition, stealing, gambling, and trading. 

It is a well-established fact that men on foot cannot live, even in the best game 
countries, in the same camp with those who have horses. The latter reach the game, 
secure what they want, and drive it beyond the reach of the former. Thus the Snakes, 
while they had no horses, would form but one people, because they would be collected 
once a year, in Salmon time; but the organization would be very imperfect, because 
the remainder of the year would be spent by them in families widely spread apart, 
to eke out the year’s subsistence on the roots and limited game of their country. 

After a portion of them, who are now called Bonacks, had obtained horses, they 
would naturally form bands and resort to the Buffalo region to gain their subsistence, 
retiring to the most fertile places in their own, to avoid the snows of the mountains 
and feed their horses. Having food from the proceeds of the Buffalo hunt, to enable 
them to live together, they would annually do so, for the protection of their horses, 
lodges, &c., &c. These interests have caused an organization among the Bonacks, 
which continues the year through, because the interests which produce it continue ; 
and it is more advanced than that of the other Snakes. 


Letter III. 

April 6th, 1848. 

Sir : 

The few observations on the “multiplication of tribes,” accompanying this, 
are not satisfactory to myself, and if not so to you, please throw them aside. 

I regret not being able to supply more facts to support a view, very strongly 
impressed on my mind, that the condition of the Indians of this continent has been 
much influenced by the introduction of the Horse. 

I shall notice the other questions, and, with your leave, communicate such views 
and facts as I may possess in regard to any of them. 


Sir : 


Letter IV. 


April 18th, 1848. 


These remarks relate to the geography, &c., of the Snake country, which is 
drained by the Saaptin or Snake River. 

This country, with small exceptions, is volcanic. The action of fire is extensively 
perceptible. Columns of basalt generally form the barriers of the streams. 

The streams almost invariably diminish toward their outlets, and many of them 
discharge no water, except at high flood, and some of them sink in the rocks and 
sands at all seasons, between Henry’s fork and the River Malad, a distance of about 
150 miles. On the north side of Snake River, all the streams are lost in this manner. 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


209 


although the streams issuing from the contiguous mountains are as abundant and 
large as on the eastern side of the same range. The streams of this region are unfit 
for navigation of any kind, with the exception of the Main Snake and Salmon Rivers, 
both of which afford the worst kind of canoe navigation, rapids being frequent, and 
portages necessary at different places, according to the stage of the water. 

All the streams of any considerable magnitude afford abundance of mill-power. At 
a place about 70 miles from the mouth of Bruneau a jet of hot water issuing from the 
basaltic rock, about 40 feet above the bed of the stream, is sufficient to carry the 
largest mills, and many jets of hot or cold water, at different heights above the stream, 
are thrown into Snake River between Malad and Henry’s Fork. 

Salmon ascend the main river to the Fishing Valley, and by Salmon River nearly to 
the Rocky Mountains, and by the other lateral branches to their sources. 

The rivers of this country, which come from the South and West, rise in April and 
May, and those of the North and East, in June and July. From August to April the 
waters are low in the main river. I have forded Snake River at the mouth of Big 
Wood in August, 1834, and in December, 1835, without wetting packs. The streams 
are divided on the East and North from the Rocky Mountains, on the North-west from 
the dividing mountains between them and the Flathead River, on the West from the 
Blue Mountains, on the South from a range which divides them from the waters of 
the Valley of the Salt Lake. Hot springs are common all over this region, but there 
are no lakes or ponds. 

I have observed fossil-wood on the Oyhee, which discharges into Snake River nearly 
opposite the Big Wood. On the heads of Goding Fork, which loses itself in the plain 
of the Three Butes; in Pierre’s Hole, at the base of the Three Titons, about thirty 
miles up the Brule; and on the heads of Salmon River, I have observed blue lime¬ 
stone and reddish sandstone, but have not observed the remains of shells in either. 
On Bruneau I found asphaltum in a solid form, and on one occasion made camp-fires 
with it. I have found good bituminous coal on the west side of the Rocky Mountains. 
On a branch of the Colorado, and on the east side on a branch of Wind River, which 
locations are immediately South and North of the heads of the Snake River, I have 
little doubt of its existence at the heads of the streams issuing into this valley from 
the mountains. 

Glauber, Epsom, and common salt are found, occasionally, where waters have 
evaporated, and rock salt is found in the mountains which divide the valley from that 
of the Salt Lake. Crystals of salt were shown me by one of my men, which he said 
he picked up on Big Wood River, where it issues from the Basaltic Rock, but, from 
the appearance of that place, I judge it was not near the place of its formation. At 
Fort Hall, salt was traded from the Indians sufficient for seasoning the meats eaten 
there, and by the trappers and traders sent from the post. Obsidian, of which the 
Indians make knives and arrow-heads, is common. 

27 


210 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION 


While travelling from Pierre’s Hole to Powder River by the trail on the south side 
of Snake River, from the 24th day of July to the 4th day of October, 1832, rain fell 
but twice, and probably not more than one-eighth of an inch each time. The dryness 
of the atmosphere, at this time, was so great that on Raft River, on the 15th of 
August, I could not discharge one barrel of my double percussion gun without causing 
the other to explode from the slightly increased heat. One man was wounded in this 
way, and guns severahtimes exploded, and I was obliged to discontinue the practice 
of placing caps on the guns, in the day-time, until immediately wanted for use. 

On the heads of Portneuf, on the 10th of August, 1832, I noted the thermometer, 
at sunrise, at 18° above zero, and the noon following, at 92°. In the immediate 
valley of Snake River the variation is less, but still much greater than in any part of 
the United States. I find noted in my journal, 11th of September, 1832, being then 
at the mouth of Bruneau, that the average difference between sunrise and noon was 
as much as 40°. In 1835, while travelling from Big Wood to Fort Hall, by the trail 
on the north side of Snake River, from the 18th of November to the 5th of December, 
it rained two days and snowed one, at both times heavily, and during this time the 
average of the thermometer, at sunrise, was 8£° above zero. Its greatest variation 
was from 7° below to 38° above zero. 

This country has ragged mountains for the boundary of its valley, the higher points 
of which retain their snow most of the year. There are high and extensive barren 
plains or table-lands, covered with artemisia, prickly-pear, and some other plants 
common to excessively dry and barren regions, with a little grass. These table-lands 
are nearly destitute of water. They are bounded by the mountains on all sides, being 
intersected by these streams, which appear to occupy fissures formed by the shrinkage 
when an immense sea of lava cooled down to basalt. These table-lands might sustain 
sheep and goats to a limited extent. They are unfeasible for any kind of cultivation 
near their mountain border, from the extreme coldness of the nights; and elsewhere, 
from the same cause, superadded to extreme dryness and poverty of soil. The bounds 
between the table-land and the river or bottom land, are generally very precipitous, 
and mostly of columnar basalt. The bottoms are generally confined, sometimes of 
good soil, but almost always too dry to produce strong vegetation, except near springs 
and other moist places, which are rare, or of small extent; frequently salts cover 
the soil and render it barren, but with irrigation, for which there are great facilities, 
agriculture might be conducted so as to supply military posts and emigrants, together 
with what would be required for a sparse population. 

The valley of Fort Hall is the best portion of the country for attempting agricul¬ 
tural operations for the supply of its eastern part. 

The valleys of the streams from Brule to Grand Ronde are fertile, and adequate to 
supply, with slight irrigation, a large quantity of agricultural products, and in some 












2 feet 10 indies lon^ 


Date 76. 



Drawp. by Capt.S.Eastman.TJ.S.A. 


itmai Sr Soup. 


Pish, spear 10 feet lon< 































HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


211 


places no irrigation would be required; and the neighboring plains and mountains 
afford fine grazing for horses, cattle, sheep, and goats. 

The mountains of this valley alone produce wood; elsewhere it is rare to find 
timber large enough to make a gun-stock; but there is a little cotton-wood on the 
borders and islands of Snake River, at and above Fort Hall, and some on Big Wood 
River. The Blue Mountains have abundance of good building timber in the vicinity 
of good land. One great want of this region will be fuel. 

The Indians, so far as can be ascertained, have never planted a seed; nor is it 
known that they ever had any kind of metal before they were visited by the whites, 
or that metals exist in the country. 


Letter V. 

April 23d, 1848. 

Sir : 

The utensils originally used by the Indians of the valley of the Saaptin or 
Snake River, were wholly of stone, clay, bone, or wood. So far as I observed, they 
possessed no metals. Their implements were the pot, bow and arrow, knives, graining 
tools, awls, root-diggers, fish-spears, nets, a kind of boat or raft, the pipe, mats for 
shelter, and implements to produce fire. 

The pot most commonly used was formed of some kind of long tough roots, wound 
in plies around a centre, shortening the circumference of the outer plies so as to form 
a vessel in the shape of an inverted bee-hive. (See Plate 76.) These plies are held 
together by a small tough root passed through a space made by forcing an awl 
between the two last plies, and winding the root under the last, and over the one to 
be added in the progress of formation, being careful to force enough of these thread¬ 
like roots between the two last plies to make the vessel water-tight. This pot is used 
for a drinking-vessel, as well as a boiling implement. With it, the latter operation is 
performed by heating stones and immersing them in the water contained in it, until 
the required heat is attained, and the contents, chiefly fish, cooked, producing a mess 
mixed with soot, ashes, and dirt. The Squaws, when moving camp, generally put 
these pots on their heads, probably more for the convenience of carrying, than with 
the idea of a hat, which was an article otherwise unknown to them. I have also seen 
among these Indians a stone pot, holding about two quarts, made of pure lava, and 
shaped much like the black-lead pot used in melting metals, (See Plate 76,) and think 
it would stand fire to be used as a boiling-pot, but have never seen it so used, or in 
any other way. It might have been used to pound seeds, hawthorns, choke-cherries, 
and service-berries, which these Indians, after pounding, make into cakes and dry for 
food. These last pots are very rare, and it must have been a great labor to make 
one. The first kind of pots were common to the Indians at the mouth of the Colum¬ 
bia, as well as the mats. 


212 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION 


The bows which I have seen were made of the horns of the mountain sheep and 
elk, and of wood, and are the best specimen of the skill of these Indians. When of 
horn, they are about two feet ten inches long, and when unstrained have a curve 
backwards. They are of two parts, spliced in the centre by sturgeon glue, and deer- 
sinews, wound around a splice. The horn is brought into shape by heating and 
wetting, and worked smooth by scraping with sharp stones, and being drawn between 
two rough stones. A cross section of the bow would show the back side less convex 
than the front. (See Plate 76.) At the centre, where the bow is spliced, before 
winding the splice, two deer-sinews, nearly entire, are strongly glued and secured by 
their butt-ends; the small ends of them being outward at the ends of the bow. Where 
they are strongly wound and secured, these sinews cover the whole width of the back 
of the bow. As a matter of ornament, the skin of a snake, commonly that of the 
rattlesnake, is glued externally on the back of the bow. The string is of twisted 
sinew, and is used loose, and those using this bow require a guard to protect the hand 
which holds it. Altogether, it is one of the most efficient and beautiful bows I have 
seen. 

The head of the arrow is formed by breaking pieces of obsidian in small parts, 
and selecting those nearest the desired form. In this selection, those of the right 
thickness are taken. In finishing them, every edge of such a piece is laid upon a 
hard stone, and the other struck with another hard stone, varying the direction and 
force of the blow, to produce the desired result. It is an operation which requires 
skill, and many are broken when nearly finished, and thrown away. When formed, 
it is about three-fourths of an inch long and half an inch wide, and quite thin, and for 
hunting purposes formed as is shown in Plate 76. It is attached by inserting its near 
or shaft end in a split in the front arrow-end of the shaft, and wound with sinews in 
such a manner as when the shaft is drawn from an animal, the head is withdrawn 
also, and the increased width just at the near end of it, is intended to secure this 
result. The arrow-heads used for warlike purposes, are formed without this increased 
width, so that when the shaft is drawn out the head will be left, to increase the 
mischief. It is said they poison these arrows, but I do not know the fact. They 
sometimes appear to have been dipped in some dark-colored fluid, which has dried on 
them. 

The shaft is about two and a half feet long, and generally made of a shrub which 
the hunters call grease-bush. This is a small bush like the currant, and is nearly as 
hard as box-wood. It is very applicable to the steaming process, and is made straight 
by wetting and immersing in hot sand and ashes, and brought into shape by the hand 
and eye. To reduce the short crooks and knobs, it is drawn between two rough grit 
stones, each of which has a slight groove in it, and coarse sand is also used to increase 
the friction. An arrow-shaft, finished, appears as though it had been nicely turned. 
The arrow is used without a notch, and is feathered for about five inches near its rear 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


213 


end, leaving space behind, just enough for the operator to grasp it in drawing the bow. 
These feathers are stripped from the sides of a suitable quill, and placed on the shaft 
in a form a little winding, but quite similar to the position they occupied on the quill. 
It produces the effect of keeping the tail of the shaft exactly in rear of the head, and 
also a rotary motion on its axis, whereby the exactitude of its course is maintained. 

The knives I have seen are rude instruments produced by breaking pieces of 
obsidian, which has a tendency to form sharp edges, like glass, and is common in the 
country; and selecting those pieces which approach the desired form, and having a 
sharp edge, this implement is often used without any other preparation, but sometimes 
a wooden or horn handle is attached, in the same manner as the shafts of the arrows. 

The graining tools for preparing skins, were ordinarily made of bone, using such as 
had a hard enamel outside, and were softer within. Sometimes obsidian was used for 
this purpose secured to the staff. 

Awls were made of bone rubbed to a sharp point, and also large thorns. 

Root-diggers are crooked sticks, the end used in the earth being curved and 
sharpened by putting it in the fire and rubbing against a rough stone, which both 
points and hardens them; they are also made of elk and deer horn, attached to a 
stick. They are used to obtain some small roots which the country produces, such as 
kama, souk, yampas, onions, tobacco-root, &c. 

The fish-spear is a beautiful adaptation of an idea to a purpose. The head of it 
is formed thus, (See Plate 76); and is of bone, to which a small strong line is 
attached near the middle, connecting it with the shaft, about two feet from the point. 
Somewhat toward the forward end of this head, there is a small hole, which enters it 
ranging acutely toward the point of the head; it is quite shallow. In this hole the 
front end of the shaft is placed. This head is about two and a half inches long, the 
shaft about ten feet, and of light willow. When a salmon or sturgeon is struck, the 
head is at once detached by the withdrawal of the shaft, and being constrained by the 
string, which still connects it with the operator, turns its position to one crosswise of 
its direction while entering. If the fish is strong, the staff is relinquished, and 
operates as a buoy to obtain the fish when he has tired down by struggling. These 
Indians are very expert in the use of this instrument, and take many fish at all the 
falls and rapid waters, and construct, on small streams, barriers of stones or brush, 
to force the fish into certain places, where they watch for them, often at night with a 
light. 

Fish-nets are made with the outer bark of some weed which grows in the country, 
but I took no particular note of what it was, or how separated from the stalk. It 
makes a line stronger than any of those I had among my outfit, although they were 
selected from the best materials of an angling warehouse by myself, who profess to be 
a judge of such articles. The twine is formed by laying the fibre doubled across the 
knee, the bight towards the left, and held between the thumb and finger of that hand, 


214 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION 


with the two parts which are to form the twine toward the right and a little separated; 
rolling these two parts between the knee and right hand, outwardly from the operator, 
and twisting the bight between the thumb and finger of the left hand, forms the 
thread. More fibre is added as that first commenced on diminishes in size, so as to 
make a continuous and equal line. In this way, excellent twine is made much more 
rapidly than could be expected. The nets are of two kinds : the scoop, which is pre¬ 
cisely the same as is used in the United States; and the seine, which is also in prin¬ 
ciple exactly the same; and the knot used in netting also appears to me exactly the 
same: but in this I may be mistaken, as I have never seen the operation performed. 
The leaded line is formed by attaching oblong rounded stones, with a sunken groove 
near the middle in which to wind the attaching ligature. Reeds are used for floats. 

Boats or Rafts. —The navigation of this region appears to have been confined to 
crossing the streams when the water was too cold for comfortable swimming. The 
only apparatus used was little more than a good raft, made of reeds which abound on 
many of the streams. They are about eight feet long, and formed by placing small 
bundles of reeds, with the butt-ends introduced and lashed together, with their small 
ends outwards. Several of these bundles are lashed together beside each other, and 
in such a manner as to form a cavity on top. There is no attempt to make it tight; 
the only dependence is on the great buoyancy of the materials used. It is navigated 
with a stick, and almost entirely by pushing. This rude form of navigation, appa¬ 
rently, is the only one ever used in the country, in which, in fact, there is hardly 
timber enough for a more improved form. 

Pipes are used with a stem, usually about two feet long. The bowl is sometimes 
made of fuller’s earth, and also of soapstone. 

Mats are made from large rushes, in a manner which appears to me to be the same 
by which the Chinese make similar fabrics. They are used to sleep on, and to con¬ 
struct lodges. They are about four feet wide, and when carried are rolled up like a 
scroll. 

These Indians produce fire by using a shaft similar to that of an arrow, about three- 
eighths of an inch in diameter, and two feet long; one end of which is bluntly pointed, 
and placed in a shallow hole in a hard, dry piece of wood. One of the operators 
takes it between his opened hands, near the top, and rolls it between them back and 
forth, forcing downwards, and when his hands approach the low r er end, another seizes 
it in the same manner; and thus the attrition is maintained until fire is produced. 
It is performed with great quickness and dexterity; but it is hard work, and few 
whites could perform the feat. 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


215 


Letter VI. 

grc May 1st, 1848. 

Yesterday I received your letter of the 25th of April. 

Herewith is my fourth and last communication relating to that portion of the conti¬ 
nent drained by Snake River; unless you deem it proper in me to suggest measures 
for the improvement of the Indians in connection with establishing a suitable route to 
the more important regions beyond, which are to be controlled by this government. 

I may find in my records some small matters relating to the valley of the Salt Lake, 
that of the Colorado, Spokan, or Flathead Rivers, or the region enclosed between the 
Blue and California Mountains, and between the latter and the sea. Will you please 
advise me as regards the above. 

I have attached much importance to the Snake country, as being the road to 
Oregon and California. 


Letter VII. 


May 1st, 1848. 

Sir: 

I know very little of the language of the Shoshonees, and the following very 
limited list may not be correct; for instance, it seems impossible that the meat and 
fish knife could have the same name, as, in a rude form, they were both in use among 
them; and the name of the mule looks as if it were derived from Mexico; and the 
word for pantaloons and buffalo robe is the same. Probably they could have had no 
original name for an article they did not possess. 

It is difficult for persons not better educated than Indian traders usually are, to 
represent by English letters the true sound of Indian words; beside which, the 
Indians differ much in the pronunciation of the same word. Another difficulty is, 
that when interrogated, Indians almost always answer “ yes ” to a leading question, 
which deceives those who are unused to them and the proper method of examination. 

In 1832, when I first went among the Shoshonees, we wished to know the name of 
the beaver, but could not succeed for several days. At last one of my trappers said 
he had learned it from an Indian, and that it was “ bonaque.” Subsequently we 
learned that this was a tribal name for a division of the Snakes. A writer calls one 
of the streams entering the Willamette the “ Claxter,” but I could never find a stream 
by that name, and came to the conclusion that the person who obtained it asked a 
question which was not understood, and the Indian very naturally said “ Claxter,” or 
“ What ?” or “ What do you mean ?” which is the meaning of the word in the country 
referred to. 


216 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


Beaver .... 
Muskrat . . . 

Salmon .... 
Mule .... 

Horse. 

White Men . . 

Bear. 

Fish-hook . . . 

Clasp-knife . . . 

Awl, or Fish-knife 
Beaver-trap . . 

Tin Basin, or Pot 

Pipe. 

Bridle .... 

Gun. 

Saddle .... 

Whip. 

Powder . . . 

Beads .... 
Long Shells . . 

Hatchet .... 
Grass . . . . 

Tobacco .... 
River, or Water 

Sun. 

Moon .... 

Shirt. 

Waistcoat. . . , 

Buffalo Robe . . 

Trowsers . . . 

Great-coat . . . 

Moccasins . . . 


Harnitze. 

Pauitze. 

Arki. 

Mourah. 

Tohuech. 

Tarbabo. 

Wearabze. 

Natzoon. 

Harbeteze. 

Wehe. 

Harnitzeoon. 

Wetour. 

Parm. 

Auke-wa-nuss. 

Peait. 

Narrino. 

Neutequar. 

Nargo touche. 

Puetzo-mo. 1 

Tawacar. 

Hohanic. 

Shawneep. 

Too-parm. 

Paah. 

Tarpe. 

Uphuie. 

Wanup. 2 

Too-wa-nup. 

Cootche. 

Cootche. 

Toshi-wanup. 

Maunep. 


These Indians nearly starve to death annually, and in winter and spring are 
emaciated to the last degree; the trappers used to think they all eventually died from 
starvation, as they became old and feeble. In salmon-time they get fat. In my 
wanderings I have never seen any of them remaining, and do not know how they 


1 These are called Hiaguoio on the North-west Coast, and are there a medium of trade. 

2 Probably the word for clothing. 


































HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 217 

dispose of their dead; many believed they were cannibals, but I have no evidence of 
this fact. 

In the portion of this country which is not destitute of game, they pound the bones 
of the animals they kill fine, and after they are boiled, eat a large portion of them. 

These Indians, according to my experience, do not possess the feelings of revenge 
or gratitude in as great a degree as the English race, and have almost none, as com¬ 
pared with the conceived notions of the original inhabitants of this continent. This 
discrepancy struck me forcibly when I first visited them, with no other knowledge of 
their character than I had derived from books. For anything I could see, they treated 
those best whom they most feared. A band of them who had wintered at Fort Hall 
and received much food and many presents, particularly from two hunters named 
Abbot and Deforest, who afterwards accompanied them on the spring hunt, murdered 
them for their equipment of horses, guns, traps, &c., although no quarrel was alleged 
to exist. At another time, for stealing some horses and traps, I gave one of them 
two dozen lashes at the flag-staff, and also took horses enough to pay for the property 
stolen; and he became afterwards a serviceable hunter, and brought many skins to the 
Fort. 

Near Fort Hall, in 1834, there were plenty of buffalo, but soon after the Fort was 
established they disappeared from its neighborhood. The beaver disappeared next. 

The origin of the Indians has employed so much ingenuity and learning, that it is 
almost useless on my part to make any suggestions. The difference of language and 
physical appearance leaves little doubt that they have come at several widely sepa¬ 
rated periods of time, and perhaps also from very different regions. Some of the 
Indians of the Valley of the Snake River have the aquiline countenance so common 
among the Crows, but a greater portion of them have the features of the Chinnooks 
and other Indians about the mouth of the Columbia. 

In the winter of 1833 I saw two Japanese who had been wrecked in a Junk near 
the entrance to the Straits of de Fuca; and if they had been dressed in the same 
manner, and placed with the Chinnook slaves whose heads are not flattened, I could 
not have discovered the difference. 


Letter VIII. 


May 20th, 1848. 

Sir: 

I have received your favor of the 12th inst. I shall not be able to give 
much information on any of the subjects you propose. 

I did not commence with the valley of the Colorado, which is the first in the tra¬ 
montane series, because I understood the inquiry to relate almost entirely to Indians, 
and this valley being decidedly a den of thieves, where every one keeps every other 
28 


218 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

at arms-length, I had no knowledge of its inhabitants, if those who infest it can be 
so called. 

I now understand that the inquiry extends to the whole subject. What has , what 
does, and what will affect the Indian race or our own ? To deduce a policy suitable to 
both, would it not be well to place my communications in the same order as the regions 
to which they relate are on the route to the Pacific? 

I can only add a few words used by the Shoshonees. 


Kay, or Tkay 
Kaywut . . 

Kayshaunt. 

Shaunt . . 


No. 

None. 

Bad, or not good. 

Good, or, perhaps, many : it 
commonly expresses good. 


Letter IX. 

May 20th, 1848. 

Sir: 

I have passed several times through the country drained by the mountain 
branches of the Colorado of the West. Of that portion which is south of Brown’s 
Hole, in about 41° north latitude, I know nothing from personal observation. The 
river below is said to be impassible, being filled with rapids, and occupying a mere 
crevice in the basaltic rocks, and the country a waste of sand and rocks. 

The valley northward of Brown’s Hole is occupied by the two main forks of the 
Colorado. Green River, in six branches, heads in the Rocky Mountains to the north 
of the South Pass, and near the Sweet-water of the Platte; and Grand River, which is 
the larger branch, heads in the mountains south of the South Pass, and with the 
Arkansas. These branches rise in the primitive and transition regions of the Rocky 
Mountains, but at the immediate base of these mountains the country becomes 
volcanic, and remains so as far south as I have visited it. These waters are in flood 
in June and July. There are runs of salt water, but whether there is any body of 
common salt was not known in the year 1836, but I have obtained it by boiling down 
a solution of the salts which whiten the earth in many places. I met with lignite 
in small veins, gypsum, and ancient marine shells, about 40 miles west of South Snake 
River, in latitude 40° 30' north, longitude 108° west. On Elk and Metols Forks of 
Grand River, in latitude 40° 40' north, longitude 107° west, I saw good bituminous 
coal in blocks in the streams, and cropping out from the sandstone on their banks. 
These positions were derived from dead reckoning from Fort Hall, the position of 
which had been previously ascertained. 

While travelling from Sweet-water to Lewis’ River, from the 23d June to 6th July, 
1832, there was frost every night and snow several times. 






HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


219 


Horses can be wintered at the Forks of Sandy, and on all the branches of Grand 
River, near the foot of the mountains, and at Brown’s Hole, which last is a favorite 
spot. 

This valley may be said to produce no timber, except in the verge of the mountains. 
On the heads of Green River, quaking asp, a kind of pine, and a kind of spruce, is 
found: on the heads of Grand River, in addition to these, pitch pine, box, alder, and 
scrub oak. Grass is barely tolerable on the heads of Green River, but is very fine on 
those of Grand River. 

When I first visited this region in 1832, it was a fine game country. Besides 
Buffalo in the greatest abundance, there were Elk, Bear, Deer, Sheep, Antelope, and 
Beaver in great numbers. This abundance of game I attributed to its having always 
been a war-ground for the surrounding tribes. Neither the Indians, nor the whites, 
dared visit it openly, except in large camps, and the small marauding parties of Indians 
were in the habit of skulking in the high mountains, watching the country, to strike 
on any they might find unprepared, and their movements caused little disturbance to 
the game. From these causes the country could never have been closely hunted. I 
am uncertain if any Indians inhabit any portion of this valley, as being particularly 
their own, above Brown’s Hole. If so, it is the Green River Snakes, whose village of 
152 lodges, I met on the main fork of Grand River, on the 18th July, 1836. These 
Snakes appear to me to be of the same stock as those of Lewis River. They resemble 
them in physical appearance, but living in a better country, they are larger and better 
looking men, and appear more intelligent. Of their language I know nothing. I had 
no intimate intercourse with them. They were then mischievous, and would rob and 
murder if they had a safe opportunity. If they have any permanent home in this 
valley, it must be on the extreme south-eastern edge, where I have not been. 

I have also met in this valley the Araphahoe village, and bands, or war-parties, of 
the Youta’s, Crows, and Blackfeet, all of whom were bad neighbors. 

The northern or Green River division of this valley, is unfit to produce anything, 
that I know of, for human sustenance, except such as may be derived from grazing. 
Horses, kine, sheep, and goats, may be sustained during the year, using the vicinity 
of the mountains in the warm months, and retiring south at the approach of cold 
weather. 

The many fertile and warm valleys of Grand River would sustain, at all seasons, 
the same animals, and also produce wheat and many other articles suitable for food, 
and could be brought to sustain a considerable population. 


Letter X. 


May 26th, 1848. 


Sir : 


I now send you a short notice of the valley of the Bear River. The recent 
information from Captain Fremont, obtained under more favorable circumstances, 


220 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

renders what I might convey obsolete, and I allude to it only as an important position 
in the route to Oregon. 

Of the valley between the Blue and Cascade Mountains, I speak more fully, because 
I think the importance of this section has not been properly stated. 

In my next, I will indicate the means which I think should be used in establishing 
the route between the east and the west, and how it may be connected with the 
improvement of the Indian races who frequent or dwell in the countries through 
which it may pass. 

I have no published map of these regions, except one by Colonel J. J. Abert, in 
1838. If there is any, more recent, published by the government, I should be pleased 
to receive one. There have been so many names given to the streams of these remote 
countries, and so often the same name to different streams, that a map is necessary to 
identify them. 


Letter XI. 


May 26th, 1848. 

Sir: 

The more recent exploration of the valley of Bear River, the main tributary 
of the Salt Lake, by Captain Fremont, with superior means, renders any extended 
notice of it, on my part, superfluous. It is one of the most important points in the 
route from the Atlantic, by the Platte, to the Pacific, by Lewis’ River. The valley, 
a little above or below the Soda Springs, is eminently fitted for a military post. It is 
the most eastern residence of the “ Diggers,” who are the most likely, of the Indians 
in those regions, to form a nucleus in the social organization of their race; and the 
valley itself is well fitted for grazing and cultivation, and would produce abundance 
of horses, kine, sheep, and goats, and also abundance of salt to cure meats. 

This valley is peculiar in one respect. Its outlet in the Salt Lake is remote from 
the most hostile and formidable tribes, while its southern and northern sides are 
defined by mountains impassable a considerable portion of the year, from snows, and 
at all seasons affording small facilities for the passage of cattle or horses. At the 
north-eastern extreme of its great bend, there are passes, but they are easily watched. 
A settlement here would be made secure from the inroads of all hostile Indians, and 
would have great facilities for producing the supplies most required in the neighboring 
regions. 1 

Buffalo were in great numbers in this valley in 1836, but must have disappeared, 
as well as the beaver, by this time. The mountain sheep were then plenty in the 
hills, and I presume are so now, as they breed where they cannot be easily disturbed. 
They were formerly taken in considerable numbers, where the deep snows of the 
mountains compelled them to visit the subordinate cliffs. 


This opinion has been remarkably verified by the success of the Mormon settlement, near that point. 




HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


221 


Rain is frequent in this valley, but irrigation, for which there is abundant means, 
would be required for an extended agriculture. Formerly, I have seen the Utahs, 
Crows, and Blackfeet in this valley, but the Shoshonees are its true occupants. They 
live in the caves and mountains, and retire to their inaccessible haunts on the appear¬ 
ance of their enemies. Horses, kine, sheep, and goats could be grazed the year round, 
without other care than that of the herdsman, and the protection of a small military 
force. 

I confine my remarks on the valley lying between the Blue and Cascade Mountains, 
to that part of it which lies between the Columbia and the heads of the small streams 
that enter it from the south. The Snake, or Digger Indians inhabit this region near 
the heads of these small waters; in winter living on the deer and other animals 
driven, by the snows of the mountains, within their reach; in more genial seasons, 
on roots and fish. Besides these, the Nezperces, Walla-Wallahs, and Cayouses visit 
this region. The latter I have met in large camps, in the winter, hunting deer, &c. 
These Indians, having plenty of horses, make an extensive surround, 1 within which 
the animals are retained by expert horsemen. Others are sent within the space to 
keep the game on the run; and after they are well tired down, the Indians commence 
the slaughter, for it is nothing else. In this manner I have seen many hundreds of 
animals killed at a single surround. The game is elk, bear, black and white-tailed, 
and big-horned deer, and a few antelopes. Beaver and otter were found in 1835, but 
may now be extinct. 

The country is mostly a high, open, rolling prairie. Some of the streams have oak, 
alder, and cotton-wood; in the mountains there is red and white cedar, and three 
kinds of pine; some of the latter quite large, and for canoes I was obliged to select 
the smaller size of them. 

The formation is volcanic; and where conglomerate sandstone is found, it is partly 
formed by the wreck of volcanic rocks. Pumice-stone is frequent. Columnar basalt 
bounds the streams, which appear to occupy chasms. The upper waters of the Des 
Schutes, or Fall River, runs, for miles, over a smooth bottom of white, soft stone, or 
indurated clay, which I have called “fullers’ earth.” Near this river are hot and 
warm springs in many places, and on a large scale at a place which I suppose to be 
the same as Captain Fremont’s camp of November 29th, 1843. There, I observed the 
thermometer at 191° in one spring, and 134° in another; and at this camp I found, 
projecting from the perpendicular face of the conglomerate rock, underlying many 
hundred feet of solid basalt, two bones about the size of the thigh-bone of the horse. 
They were white and mineralized by flinty matter, which produced fire when stricken 
by the steel. These were the only remains of ancient animal life I ever saw on the 
waters of the Columbia, except a few shells on the heads of Salmon River. 


1 For using this word as a noun, local usage in the Indian country must, we fancy, he plead. 




222 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


This valley abounds in fossil wood. In a slide from the mountain near the Cascades, 
I found a log of wood, one end of which had been mineralized so fully by some flinty 
matter that I produced fire from it with a steel. The other end was burnt in the fire 
so made. 

The climate of this valley is warm in winter. On the 4th of February, 1835, frogs 
were croaking. Blackbirds remain through the year; and flowers may be found, in 
some part of it, during every month. Snows and rains alternate from September to 
March, in the plains, but the former are light, and do not remain more than one or 
two days; but in the immediate verge of the Cascade Mountains they are heavy. I 
was once subjected to a snow-storm on the heads of the Des Schuts, during which we 
judged six feet in depth to have fallen, and escaped only by building canoes and 
descending the river, the main stream of which does not freeze at any time. 

The thermometer in the lower valleys of this region cannot range much, if any, 
below freezing, during any portion of the year; but I was not careful enough to note 
its indication. 

This valley, throughout its whole extent, produces, generally, “ bunch grass,” which 
stands with the autumn rains, and remains green during the winter, drying like made 
hay in the dry season. It is in the highest degree nutritive. 

There is a waste of rocks and sand near the Columbia, and on its immediate banks. 

In this valley are chiefly reared the horses required in the immense region north 
of California, and west of the Rocky Mountains, and many of those used on the heads 
of the rivers this side of the mountains, which is sufficient proof of its grazing facilities. 
These animals are raised without shelter, and on the natural products of the country. 
The number must have been very great to supply the entire wants of the Hudson 
Bay Company, including food; that of the American Company in and about the 
mountains of the Independent Trappers; that of the Indians going to hunt buffalo, 
many being lost by abuse and hardship, and more stolen by the Blackfeet, Crows, 
Youtas, Snakes, and other tribes. It was not uncommon that a single Indian owned 
a hundred or more of them. 

This valley is capable of producing large quantities of hides, tallow, beef, and wool. 
It has all the advantages of California for grazing, without its defects : droughts do not 
occur to injure it for this purpose. The slopes of the mountains or the bottom of the 
valleys are a green pasture at all seasons. The winters are cold enough to salt meats, 
which is not the case in California. This valley is pre-eminent for its pastoral 
advantages. 

Its agricultural facilities are not so great: still, some of the bottoms of the rivers 
are good soil, and the lower slopes of the mountains generally so; in both, irrigation 
could be easily applied, and the agricultural wants of a pastoral people abundantly 
supplied. 

No country affords better streams for manufacturing purposes. The waters are 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


223 


very equal, being supplied, in the cold season, by the rains and melting snows of the 
lower parts, and in the warm season by that of the mountains. 

The routes of this country are not deficient, and a point below the Great Dalles 
may be easily reached, where there is a fine and deep river to the Cascades, where is 
a portage of about two miles, which might be improved, and from that to the sea is 
good navigation. 

This region may be called perfectly healthy. In it the epidemic fever, which broke 
out on the lower Columbia, in 1829, and continued its ravages until 1886, and nearly 
exterminated the native races there, has not been known, except in cases of persons 
who had been previously in the infected region. These sometimes suffered from it, 
but none others. 


Letter XII. 

June 2d, 1848. 

Sir : 

I now send you a few remarks on the route to Oregon, and the improvements 
of the Indians. 

I have confined myself to their physical condition, which I consider preliminary to 
moral or natural development in most cases, and more particularly among a people 
who are starving for food, and freezing for want of clothes and shelter, at least half 
the year. 


Sir: 


Letter XIII. 


June 2d, 1848. 


A line of communication across the continent, and the improvement of the 
condition of the Indians through whose countries it may pass, involves the considera¬ 
tion of several important facts. 

1st. The policy of this government, which has had the effect to concentrate the 
Indians toward the Rocky Mountains, and in the neighborhood of this route. 

2d. That the increased number of the Indians is fast destroying the game on which 
they mainly subsist. 

3d. That the stream of white population passing through these countries, and 
more particularly the introduction of the Robe Trade, is rapidly hastening the 
decrease of the game. 

4th. That, notwithstanding the Indians east of the mountains have a country well 
fitted for agriculture, yet they have never depended much on it, for their subsistence, 
and appear unfitted for its steady labors. This renders it wholly improbable that 
those west of the mountains, with a soil and climate generally unfitted for agriculture, 
and who have never planted a seed, will ever devote themselves to its pursuit. 


224 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


5th. In the natural progress of the improvement of man, the pastoral condition is 
the second stage, and succeeds that of the hunter. 

6th. That some of the Indians, in the region under consideration, have already 
reached this second condition, having introduced and reared horses, and more recently 
by obtaining cattle, and appear well disposed to commence such pursuits. 

7th. That peace cannot be maintained among numerous and various tribes of 
Indians, unless means of subsistence can he provided to prevent the necessity of one 
preying on another, and all, on our citizens, who may be located in those regions, or 
on their way through them. 

The following remarks should be confined to the countries I have heretofore partially 
described, viz., from the summit of the South Pass by the Colorado, Bear, Snake, and 
Columbia Rivers to the Great Dalles, being the route through which our communica¬ 
tions will be made with the settlements in Oregon, and by which the great mass of 
emigration to that region must pass. 

This country is essentially different from any which this government has heretofore 
controlled, but is of the same character as the great mass of that which is soon to be 
placed under its protection. It resembles the interior of Asia. None of the roving 
tribes who infest it claim the ownership of its soil; they visit it only to hunt game, 
and murder and plunder those they meet, if they are strong or cunning enough to do 
so. The different bands of Shoshonees are its true inhabitants, except below the Blue 
Mountains, where the Cayouses and Walla-Wallahs dwell. These Indians plant 
nothing, and live only by the indigenous productions, on fish, game, and roots. I do 
not know that they ever claimed the ownership of the soil in a single instance. 

The treaty system, which has been pursued, as regards the Indians and their lands, 
this side of the mountains, appears to me inapplicable to this region. First, Because, 
in a large portion of the country, there is no resident Indian government with whom 
to treat. Government has not been introduced among them to a sufficient extent for 
this purpose. They exist in small detached bodies and single families, and change 
their locations so widely that they seem to have no particular claim to any portion. 
Second, There is no distinct property to be treated for, as no considerable body of 
these Indians, except between the Cascade and Blue Mountains, can be found whose 
lines of wandering have not continually interlocked with those of similar bands. 
Third, If there were distinct ideas of ownership in the soil, the case would still be the 
same, as an immense proportion of it would be entirely valueless, if distributed in dis¬ 
tinct properties. It is only valuable as a commonalty, and for grazing purposes, 
except in locations which are of very limited extent. 

I coincide with the opinion, so often expressed by those best acquainted with this 
region, that posts should be established at suitable points on the route through it; but 
I would not confine the use of them to the protection and aid of emigrants, but extend 
it to the improvement of the condition of the Indians, together with fostering a white 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


225 


pastoral population. For which purpose I would propose the establishment of posts, 
say one each, at the “ Red Butes” of the Platte; the mouth of the “ Sandy,” on Green 
River; at “ Bear River,” near the Soda Springs; in the valley of “ Fort Hall;” in the 
valley of “ Bruneau;” in the valley of “ Powder River,” near the Lone Pine; at the 
mouth of the “Umatullah,” about fifteen miles below Wall a-Wallah; and at the 
u Great Dalles” of the Columbia. These points are about seven camps distant from 
each other, for packed animals, except that Bear River is five camps from Sandy, and 
two from Fort Hall; and they are all on the immediate line of the Oregon trail, within 
that which passes north, if Snake River bend is followed, or that which passes on the 
south. 

These posts should have a military force appointed to each, of from 20 to 100 men. 
The two nearest the south Pass should be more strongly garrisoned than the inter¬ 
mediate ones between them and those on the Columbia, where the Indians are more 
effectively organized. A disposable force would also be required, of perhaps 100 men, 
to support any point which might require it, and supply convoys and expresses, &c. 
These posts should also have a sufficient number of white laborers for the operations 
of agriculture, for their subsistence, and to superintend the herding of animals, but the 
main body of the herdsmen should be selected, in preference, from the Indians. 
Horses, cattle, sheep, and goats, whichever might suit the particular location, should 
also be provided for these establishments, taking care to select good breeds. 

All these posts would produce wheat and many other articles required for their 
support, except, perhaps, those of Sandy and the Red Butes, where it would be 
uncertain. 

These positions might probably be kept up with a less force than stated above, but 
as the game decreases rapidly, and in most of this region is now nearly extinct, the 
Indians may become more troublesome; besides, it is always best to show them an 
imposing force in the beginning. It will probably be some time before the Indians 
will be induced to respect property from any motive but fear; eventually, the fact of 
possessing it themselves may furnish another motive. 

Indians should be employed for all services which they can be induced to perform; 
particularly such as are required in managing the animals which may be reared, and 
their services paid in cattle and clothing, with a view to induce them to become 
owners of herds. 

Such portions of the country as may appear fitted for agriculture, should be reserved 
to the government; and of the lands so reserved, an allotment should be made to 
every Indian inhabitant of the country, and the remainder, except such as might be 
reserved for the use of the government posts, opened for sale to whites or Indians who 
might choose to purchase. The remainder of the country should be thrown open 
for one vast grazing-field, to be used by all who might own stock. 

The posts just established should at first attend to the rearing of stock; but subse- 
29 


226 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


quently, when a sufficient number of animals have been transferred to private indi¬ 
viduals, either Indian or white, it might be relinquished to their enterprise. 

At first the expenses of these establishments might be considerablej but in the end 
this would be fully compensated by the advantages gained. A tax per head might 
be laid on the animals grazed on the common lands, as a condition of the use of them 
for that purpose, and also on the allotments of agricultural lands; and from these 
services, in a few years the revenue would nearly or quite equal the expenditure. 

The lands being in common, cattle intended for export from the country might be 
grazed slowly, at a proper season, down to the Great Dalles; whence the transporta¬ 
tion would be a slight charge. 

I am fully impressed with the belief that these Indians must become extinct under 
the operation of existing causes, and that some system should be adopted for their 
improvement which will supply their physical wants, and develop such elements of 
wealth as may exist in these remote regions, both for the benefit of their race and our 
own. I have no doubt that some well-devised system to carry out the leading ideas 
above expressed, would in time accomplish both; but should it fail, as all other plans 
have, to improve the Indian race, it would certainly enure to the advantage of our 
own, by rendering productive in pastoral wealth regions which otherwise will remain 
a waste. 


Sir : 


Letter XIV. 


June 6th, 1848. 


Your favor of 2d instant was received yesterday. I do not precisely under¬ 
stand whether you seek the Indian name of the Bear River, or that of the Snake 
River. The latter is called by the Nezperces “Saaptin,” and by the Shoshonees 
“ Paah,” and the tribal name of the Nezperces was, I believe, Saaptin. Among them 
the Bear is called Hohost, and lower down on the Columbia it is Khoot. Lewis and 
Clark’s Narrative mentions a chief named “ Hohostilpilp,” which means red or brown 
bear, and should be divided thus—Hohost-ilp-ilp; and the Koos Kooshe, on which he 
was found, is a compound of the word koots, or little, and coose, or horse—little horse, 
which is the name for the dog. The Nezperce whom I brought to Boston in 1833, 
called my cat by the same name also. Also by the Saaptins all the colors are denoted 
by double words, as “ hi-hi,” white, “ ilp-ilp,” red or brown, “ snioux-snioux,” black. 

With the resident Shoshonees of Bear River of Salt Lake, I had no verbal inter¬ 
course. In 1833, when I saw them, they always fled to the inaccessible mountains. 

Without having any evidence of the fact, I suppose the name of the river was given 
by the whites. At one time it was called White River. In the same manner the 
trappers have named branches of Grand River “Little Snake” and “Little Bear River,” 
and some used the word South instead of Little, while the Shoshonee name of the 
latter was “Yampah.” 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


227 


The great number of bears which formerly harbored in the deep volcanic chasms 
of the mountains, near the Soda Springs, might have induced either whites or Indians 
to confer this name on the river. 

I might, if desirable, give you a very few Nezperce and Flathead, or Spokan words, 
and more that were used on and near the Wallamette; but I suppose there is now 
much better means of obtaining a vocabulary of the latter. 

Letter XV. 

August 14th, 1848. 

Sir : 

Your favor of 29th ultimo was received on the 1st instant. Unavoidable 
engagements have prevented answering it until now. 

I have no memorandum of the statistics of the Snakes, Bonacks, and Shoslionees, 
although one was kept at Fort Hall of the Indians who visited that establishment, up 
to the time it was sold to the Hudson’s Bay Company, in 1837; but such estimates 
are of little value, owing to the inaccuracies arising from the very roving character of 
the Indians of that region, and the difficulty of identifying them when they return, 
after long intervals of time. 

The Green River Snakes have a country well stored with buffalo, and consequently 
good food, clothes, and lodges. They appeared to be thriving Indians in 1836, but I 
do not suppose they were on the increase. Probably they had been stationary in 
numbers for a long period; and the same observation, I think, may be applied to all 
the Indians on both sides of the mountains, who have access to the Buffalo regions. 
I suppose that all such Indians have been prevented from increasing by continual 
encounters, arising from horse-stealing and other predatory habits incident to hunting- 
grounds, which are used as a commonalty among several tribes, combined with the 
natural desire of each to monopolize the whole. 

The natural effect produced by a state of warfare would be to compel them to visit 
the hunting grounds for limited periods, and in large parties, for the purpose of making 
meat and skins, retiring, when that was accomplished, to residences more secure for 
themselves and property, thereby allowing the buffalo some respite. It has been 
noticed that all buffalo countries are the war-grounds of several tribes. Before the 
inroads of the Whites to these regions, a long-continued peace among the Indians, 
allowing them to hunt continuously, and in small parties, would have increased their 
numbers; but if long continued would have extirpated the game, and, in the end, 
compelled the Indians to choose between the labors of herding domesticated animals 
and agriculture, to sustain the increased number, or a resort to war to reproduce an 
equilibrium with the means of sustenance. The latter resort is more in accordance 
with the Indian mind, in its past and present state. 

From such considerations, my own opinion is, that these Indians have been, as 


228 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


regards numbers, for a long time weighed in a balance, the means of subsistence some¬ 
times preponderating, and increasing their numbers, and this decreasing the game, 
which would again produce depopulating contests, which would again allow the game 
to increase. 

When the Whites began to visit these regions, the destruction of the game became 
inevitable, and that of the Indians will surely follow, if the power of the government 
is not exerted to substitute some means of obtaining food which is available, without 
a violent or sudden departure from their established habits and natural character. 

No success has attended the effort to bring the natives of this continent to the level 
of our race; but it is incumbent on us to continue it in good faith, and I am fully 
impressed with the belief that it might be accomplished through the introduction of 
the means and habits of pastoral pursuits, as an intermediate step to agriculture, and 
I believe the experiment would not cost, in dollars, as much as that of keeping Indians 
quiet, who have been crowded into countries nearly destitute of game, while they are 
still inadequate to the labors of agriculture. 

The Bonacks and Shoshonees, I have no doubt, were decreasing when I was in 
their country, and I do not believe they were ever very numerous: the country is too 
poor, in all respects, to admit of increase. 

I can without any reserve state, that the Indians between the Rocky and Blue 
Mountains, and from 49° to 53° north latitude, which includes the range of these 
two tribes, and many more, were never demoralized previous to 1837, by the introduc¬ 
tion of alcohol. I was in the trade myself and conversant with the parties who 
visited that region, and the management of all the posts in it, for the five preceding 
years. Spirits were never traded with them; rarely, a good hunter or chief was 
presented with a glass on his arrival. And the whole quantity introduced in a year 
would not have supplied the value of a week’s fertility in a year to the white persons 
in the country. It was far too expensive, owing to long transportation on packed 
animals, which was the only means of conveyance, to be brought in considerable 
quantities. 

The introduction of alcohol among Indians may have influenced their condition 
elsewhere, and would probably do so in the countries referred to, but when I left 
those regions, their products were so inconsiderable in value, as to interpose a complete 
protection from its introduction or use. 

I am, very respectfully, 

Your Obedient Servant, 

Nathaniel J. Wyeth. 


Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq. 


4. THE COMANCHES AND OTHER TRIBES OF TEXAS; 
AND THE POLICY TO BE PURSUED RESPECTING 
THEM. 


BY EX-PRESIDENT DAVID G. BURNET. 

The eminent position in Texan history, of the writer of the following paper—his 
early migration into the area of Texas; and the opportunities of observation he has 
had, for a long series of years, upon the manners and customs, traits, character, and 
numbers of the aboriginal population of that state, give a value to it, which will not 
fail to be recognised. Mr. Burnet was one of the earliest Americans who migrated 
into that country, during the era of the Austin movement. 


Austin, Texas, 

September 29th, 1847. 

Sir : 

Major Neighbors, the special Indian Agent for Texas, some time ago pre¬ 
sented me a pamphlet containing many queries in relation to Indians, their history, 
habits, &c.; 1 and requested I would furnish something concerning the Comanches, 
among whom he knew I had been. 

Always willing to contribute any thing in my power to the general mass of intelli¬ 
gence, on a subject of such intrinsic interest, I have prepared a paper of some length, 
—it may be of some little value,— relating to the Indians of Texas, but principally 
to the Comanches, our most considerable tribe. In the continued absence of Major 
Neighbors, I take the liberty to transmit it to you. If it will add any thing worth 
being contributed to the amount of information sought to be collected, I shall be fully 
compensated for the trouble of preparing it. 

The subject touched on in the two last paragraphs, though somewhat extraneous, 
is one of present interest to the General Government, and to this new State. 

Yery respectfully, 

Your obedient Servant, 

David G. Burnet. 

Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq. 


Vide u Inquiries,” issued by the War Department in 1847. See Appendix. 

(229) 



230 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


August 20th, 1847. 

Sir : 

Daring the years 1818-19,1 spent a considerable time with, or in the vicinity 
of, the Comanche Indians of Texas. My purpose was the renovation of an impaired 
constitution, seriously threatened with pulmonary consumption, in which I succeeded 
beyond my utmost expectations. 

This residence in the Indian country, enabled me to collect some facts in relation 
to the Comanches, and some minor tribes of Texas, which may possibly be worthy of 
being communicated to the Department of Indian Affairs, in reply to the very 
voluminous inquiries concerning the aborigines of the United States, lately promul¬ 
gated by the Chief of the Department, a copy of which you have furnished me. 
My information is entirely too limited and imperfect, for me to attempt a specific 
answer to the several queries propounded. The want of an adequate interpreter 
would alone have precluded me from acquiring the minute statistical and other infor¬ 
mation necessary to that end, had my mind been specially directed to such an object. 
I shall therefore condense the remarks I have to make, and which, in the absence of 
all memoranda, I must draw from a recollection of near thirty years. 

The Comanches are the most numerous tribe of Indians in Texas. They are 
divided into three principal bands; to wit, the Comanche, the Yamparack, and the 
Tenawa. The former, with whom we have most intercourse, from their geographical 
position, occupy the region between the Rivers Colorado of Texas and the Red 
River of Louisiana; ranging from the sources of the Colorado, including its western 
affluents, down to the Llano Bayou; and from the vicinity of the Pawnees, on the Red 
River, to the American settlements on that stream. They are frequently at war with 
the Pawnees, and sometimes make a hostile incursion upon the Osages. The Yampa- 
racks range the country north and west of the Comanches; and the Tenawas again 
interior from the latter. They are essentially one people: speak the same language, 
and have the same peculiar habits, and the same tribal interests. 

In 1819 the three bands consisted of 10,000 to 12,000 souls, and could muster from 
2000 to 2500 warriors. They have been generally estimated at much higher numbers, 
but I am persuaded the above would comprise their entire population and their utmost 
military force. Since the period above named, I presume they have rather diminished 
than increased in numbers, as they are generally engaged in depredating upon the 
proximate Mexican settlements, by which they often suffer loss of life; are also occa¬ 
sionally at war with other tribes; and have within a few years sustained some abate¬ 
ment of numbers in their forays upon our settlements. 

The Comanches have no definite idea of their own origin. Their loose tradition is, 
that their ancestors came from the North ; but they have no precise conception of the 
time when, or from what particular region. They are nomadic in their manner of life; 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


231 


their cattle consisting of horses and mules, which they rob, for the most part, from 
the imbecile Mexicans, who hold them in great dread. They have no knowledge of 
agriculture, but depend entirely on game for subsistence, and chiefly on the buffalo, 
which descend in large herds to their region on the approach of winter. During the 
summer months, when the buffalo return to their northern pastures, these Indians are 
often exposed to suffering, and find it difficult to procure adequate sustenance; but 
they have a rare capacity for enduring hunger, and manifest great patience under its 
infliction. After long abstinence they eat voraciously, and without apparent incon¬ 
venience. 

I do not believe the Comanches, — by which term I intend the entire tribe, — have 
any traditions of the slightest verisimilitude, running farther into bygone time than 
the third generation. Their means of knowledge of the past are altogether oral; 
unaided by monuments of any description. I could never discover that they had any 
songs, legends, or other mementoes, to perpetuate the fetes of arms, or other illustrious 
deeds of their progenitors; and I question if the names of any of their chiefs of the 
fourth generation ascending are retained among them. They perish with but little 
more note of remembrance than does a favorite dog among the enlightened of the 
people. In 1819 their principal chief, who was generally recognised as the head of 
the three bands, was called Parrow-aJrifty ; by interpretation, Little Bear. He was a 
Tenawa, and was a brave, enterprising, and intelligent savage; superior to his tribe 
in general. He was celebrated for his taciturnity and sedateness; it was said of him, 
that he never laughed, except in battle. His habitual taciturnity was not of that 
affected kind which is sometimes adopted among the more enlightened, as a conve¬ 
nient substitute for, and type of, wisdom. 

The authority of their chiefs is rather nominal than positive; more advisory than 
compulsive; and relies more upon personal influence than investment of office. They 
have a number, altogether indefinite, of minor chiefs or captains, who lead their small 
predatory bands, and are selected for their known or pretended prowess in war. Any 
one who finds and avails himself of an opportunity for distinction in robbing horses 
or scalps, may aspire to the honors of chieftaincy, and is gradually inducted by a 
tacit popular consent, no such thing as a formal election being known among them. 
They usually roam in small subdivisions, varying according to caprice, or the scarcity 
or abundance of game, from twenty to one hundred families, more or less; and to 
each of these parties there will be one or more captains or head men. If any internal 
social difficulty occurs, it is adjusted, if adjusted at all, by a council of the chiefs 
present, aided by the seniors of the lodges, whose arbitrement is usually, though not 
always, conclusive between the parties at variance: but there are not many private 
wrongs perpetrated among them, and family or personal feuds seldom arise—they live 
together in a degree of social harmony which contrasts strikingly with the domestic 
incidents of some pseudo-civilized communities, that vaunt of their enlightenment. 


232 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


They have no idea of jurisprudence as a practical science, and no organized and 
authoritative system of national polity. One captain will lead his willing followers to 
robbery and carnage, while another, and perhaps the big chief of all, will eschew the 
foray, and profess friendship for the victims of the assault. Hence treaties made with 
these untutored savages are a mere nullity, unless, enforced by a sense of fear per¬ 
vading the whole tribe: and it is somewhat difficult to impress this sentiment upon 
them; for they have a cherished conceit, the joint product of ignorance and vanity, 
that they are the most powerful of nations. 

They recognise no distinct rights of raeum and teum, except to personal property; 
holding the territory they occupy, and the game that depastures upon it, as common 
to all the tribe: the latter is appropriated only by capture. They are usually very, 
liberal in the distribution of their provisions, especially in a time of scarcity. Their 
horses and mules are kept with sufficient caution, in separate cavalcades or hordes. 
Industrious and enterprising individuals will sometimes own from one to three hundred 
head of mules and horses, the spoils of war. These constitute their principal articles 
of traffic, which they exchange for the goods their convenience or fancy may require. 
They sell some buffalo robes, which are dressed, and sometimes painted, by the women 
with considerable taste. Prisoners of war belong to the captors, and may be sold or 
released at their will. While among them, I purchased four Mexican prisoners, 
for each of whom I paid, on an average, about the value of 200 dollars, in various 
articles, estimated at their market value. One of them very soon stole a horse and 
ran away ; two were worthless idlers ; and one old man rendered some remuneration 
by personal services. 

These three cognate tribes cannot be said to have any common tribal government. 
The Tenawa and Yamparacks trade with the Mexicans of Santa Fe, while the lower 
party war upon the Mexicans of Chihuahua, and all the lower provinces, including 
Tamaulipas. Still, hostilities by the United States with the one, wonld involve a 
conflict with all; for the Comanches, the lower party, if pressed, would retire to, and 
coalesce with, their kindred, who would adopt the quarrel without an inquiry into its 
justice or expediency. But, ordinarily, there is no political intercommunion between 
them, although they sometimes cohabit and pursue the buffalo in the same range. 
The two upper parties have comparatively few mules or horses, being less convenient 
to those portions of Mexico where these animals most abound; the regions of the mid 
and lower Rio Grande. They have no established “game laws,” but they regard the 
ingress of stranger hunters with a jealousy that is sometimes fatal to the intruders. 
This seldom occurs, unless the destruction can be consumated with impunity. As 
before remarked, their trade consists principally in the exchange of horses and mules, 
for the usual articles of Indian commerce. They are sufficiently astute in dealing, 
although quite ignorant of the real value of many articles they purchase, and are liable 
to be egregiously imposed upon. A prompt delivery on both parts, is the best mode to 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


233 


secure payment. When goods are delivered to them on credit, they are either 
gambled off, or distributed by donations to friends, in a few days, and then the 
improvident debtor “ loves his horses,” and pays them with reluctance, if at all. An 
obstinate refusal to pay, is difficult to overcome—though I have known the chiefs in 
council to compel payment—but the combined influence of several of their most 
powerful chiefs was necessary to effect it. 

The Comanches take no furs, and but few deer-skins, the most of which they 
consume at home. There are very few beavers or otters in their country, and they 
know nothing of the art of trapping. The American trappers have nearly extirpated 
these valuable animals from the waters of Texas. They have no idea of the value 
of money as a medium of exchange. I have often seen dollars and their several 
integrants, suspended in a continuous line, terminating in picayunes, to the hair of a 
Comanche dandy, elongated by horse-hair or a cow’s tail. 

The Comanches compute numbers by the fingers — the digits, by single fingers 
extended—decimals by both hands spread out—and the duplication of decimals, by 
slapping both hands together to the number required—I do not know the names of 
their digits, except the unit, semus; nor to what extent they carry these generic 
denominations; but doubt if they have any term for a higher number than twenty— 
after that, they resort to the names of the several digits for the multiplication of the 
decimal number. They keep no accounts in hieroglyphics, or devices of any kind, 
but rely entirely upon memory; their commercial transactions being few and simple. 

They have made but small advances in the science of medicine, and have no 
determinate knowledge of the pathology of diseases. The country they inhabit is 
remarkably salubrious, and I noticed among them several instances of apparently 
great longevity, accompanied with a notable retention of the mental and physical 
faculties. There are no marshes, swamps, or stagnant water-pools, to send forth 
miasmatic exhalations, engendering “the pestilence that walketh in darkness.” I 
believe they have a very potent and efficacious, if not a sovereign, vegetable remedy 
for the bite of venomous reptiles, unless a principal artery is punctured. They are 
expert in curing gun-shot wounds, and in the treatment of fractured limbs, which 
they bandage with neatness and good effect. They have no knowledge of the art of 
amputation, and if gangrene supervenes in any case it is remediless. They believe 
in divers amulets and other mystic influences; and have a custom of “ singing for 
the sick,” when a crowd assembles at the lodge of the sick person and makes all sorts 
of hideous noises, vocal and instrumental, the object of which is to scare away the 
disease;—-it is certainly better calculated to affright than to soothe. I did not inquire, 
with any minuteness, into their materia medica, believing that Comanche specifics 
were more likely to be efficacious among themselves than with others : their diet and 
all their habits are simple, and they are strangers to strong drink, or “ fire-water ,’ as 
they significantly call alcoholic liquors. They have no regular physicians, and have 
30 


234 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


not much use for any, for there are few diseases prevalent among them. Fevers 
sometimes occur, hut are not understood either in their pathology or manner of cure : 
they are generally intermittent, and of a very mild type, owing partly to the arid 
purity of their atmosphere. They have no professed practitioners in obstetrics. A 
woman will accomplish her parturition without aid, and sometimes on a journey, 
without losing an entire day’s march. The small-pox was introduced among them 
the second year previous to my visit, and swept off a great number. It prevailed but 
a short time or the nation would have become extinct, for I believe very few who 
imbibed the virus survived its ravages. Their mode of treatment was calculated to 
increase the mortality. The patients were strictly confined to their lodges, excluded 
from the air, and almost suffocated with heat. In many instances while under the 
maddening influence of the disease, exasperated by a severe paroxysm of symptomatic 
fever, they would rush to the water and plunge beneath it. The remedy was 
invariably fatal. 

The Comanche costume is simple, though often variegated : it consists generally of 
a buffalo robe, worn loosely around the person, and covering the whole to the ancles. 
This is sometimes painted, or ornamented with beads on the skin side, or both. They 
prefer a large mantle of scarlet or blue cloth, or one half of each color, except in very 
cold weather, when the robe, the hair turned in, is more comfortable. The breech- 
cloth is usually of blue stroud, and descends to the knees. The leggings, made long, 
of dressed deer-skin, or blue or scarlet cloth, garnished with a profusion of beads and 
other gewgaws. The head-dress is as various as their fancies can suggest, and their 
means supply. Parrow-a-kifty’s parade head-dress was a cap made of the scalp of a 
buffalo bull, with the horns attached in proper position. He ordinarily wore few 
ornaments. The young men, the exquisites of the tribe,— and no people, savage or 
civilized, are more addicted to the fanciful in dress,—bedaub their faces with paints 
of divers kinds and colors—red, black, and white predominant—these they obtain, 
for the most part, from the different fossils of their country, without chemical 
elaboration. Vermilion is much admired, but is generally too costly for habitual use. 
They sometimes load their heads with feathers, arranged in lofty plumes, or dangling 
in the air in pensile confusion, or wove into an immense hood. The hair is often 
besmeared with a dusky-reddish clay; and horse-hair, cow-tails, or any other analo¬ 
gous material, is attached to the conglomerate mass, until the huge compound cue will 
descend to the heels of the wearer. They wear arm-bands, from one to ten or more 
on each arm, made of brass wire, about the size of a goose-quill; nose-pieces, of shell, 
or bone, or silver, attached to the division-cartilage; and ear-pendants, of strung-beads 
or any thing they fancy and can procure. They know nothing of the origin of these 
customs of the costume, and understand as little of any sensible reason for them, as 
the more civilized dandy does, of the rationale of his changeful fancies of the toilet, 
which are sometimes equally as ridiculous and diverse from the simplicity and the 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


235 


symmetry of nature. Their actual war-dress approaches to absolute nudity. When 
about to attack an enemy, which they always do on horseback, they disrobe them¬ 
selves of every thing but the breech-cloth and moccasins. Their saddles are light, 
with high pommels and cantlins 5 and they never encumber their horses with useless 
trappings. 

The women are held in small estimation; they are “ hewers of wood and drawers 
of water” to their indolent and supercilious lords. But this is common to all people, 
on whom the oracles of truth have never shed their humanizing influence. The 
women, married and single, pay much less attention to personal adornment than the 
men, and appear, in the degradation of their social condition, to have retained but 
little self-respect. They are disgustingly filthy in their person's, and seemingly as 
debased in their moral as in their physical constitution. They are decidedly more 
ferocious and cruel to prisoners than the men, among whom I have sometimes wit¬ 
nessed a gleaming of a kind and benevolent nature. It is an ancient custom to sur¬ 
render a prisoner to the women, for torture, for the first three days of his arrival 
among them. These fiends stake out the unhappy victim by day, that is, fasten him 
on his back to the ground, with his limbs distended by cords and stakes. At evening, 
he is released and taken to the dance, where he is placed in the centre of a living 
circle, formed by the dense mass of his tormentors, and made to dance and sing, while 
the furies of the inner line beat him with sticks and thongs of raw-hide, with great 
diligence and glee, until their own exertions induce fatigue; when he is remanded to 
his ground-prison, to abide a series of small vexations during the coming day, and a 
repetition of the fell orgies the ensuing night. At the expiration of the three days, 
he is released from their custody, exempt from further annoyance, and taken to the 
lodge of his captor, to enter upon his servitude. This course is not universal. Adult 
prisoners are sometimes deliberately put to death with protracted tortures, when the 
party taking them have suffered much loss of life in the foray. At such times, these 
savages will eat a portion of the flesh of their victims; and so far are liable to the 
charge of being cannibals. But they eat to gratify a spirit of revenge, and not to 
satiate a morbid and loathsome appetite. Cannibalism, disgusting in all its phases, 
is with them a purely metaphysical passion. It is perhaps more abhorrent, to a correct 
moral sense, though less loathsome than that which results from mere brutal appetite. 
When boys or girls are captured, they are not subject to any systematic punishment, 
but are immediately domiciliated in the family of the captor. If docile and tractable, 
they are seldom treated with excessive cruelty.' They are employed in menial ser¬ 
vices, and, occasionally, in process of time, are emancipated and marry into the tribe, 
when they become, de facto , Comanches." There were a number of Mexican juvenile 
prisoners among them. Those I saw were reluctant to being redeemed, and a much 
higher value was set on them than on adults. 

Polygamy, to an indefinite extent, is permitted. One chief, Carno-san-tua, the son 


236 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


of America, a name I presume of Mexican bestowment, had ten wives, all of whom 
seemed to live together in uninterrupted harmony, although one of them was evidently 
the chief favorite. Wives are divorced unceremoniously by the husbands, and some¬ 
times marry again. Infidelity, on the part of the wife, is punished by cutting off the 
nose; the excision is made from the lower extremity of the cartilage, diagonally to 
the lip. I saw several instances of this revolting retribution. The women do all the 
menial work. They often accompany their husbands in hunting. He kills the game, 
they butcher and transport the meat, dress the skins, &c. One or more women will 
sometimes accompany a war-party, when they act as hostlers and serviteurs generally. 
When in the enemy’s country, and near the scene of intended assault, the party 
selects some sequestered spot, in a dense thicket or chapparal, if to be had, where they 
encamp, deposit their feeble horses and surplus baggage, with a few of the aged or 
inefficient warriors, and the women, as a camp-guard, while they sally out, usually by 
moonlight, in quest of prey. They war for spoils, and their favorite spoils are horses 
and mules. They often drive off several hundreds of these from a single Mexican 
ranche, on one foray. The Comanches are not deficient in natural courage, and no 
people excel them in the art of horsemanship, and few, if any, in the use of the bow 
and the javelin, both of which they handle with great dexterity, on horseback. As 
foot-soldiers, they are comparatively of little account; but they are seldom caught on 
foot by an enemy, and never, except by surprise. They use light shot-guns, but have 
an aversion to the weight of the rifle. Experience has taught them to dread this 
formidable weapon, in the hands of our brave frontiers-men; and to this sentiment 
may be attributed much of their forbearance from hostilities. They are generally 
men of good stature, with very few instances of diminutive size or personal deformity. 
They use a shield made of raw buffalo-hide, contracted and hardened by an ingenious 
application to fire. It is oval or circular, about two feet in diameter, and is worn on 
the left arm. It will effectually arrest an arrow, but is not proof against a rifle-ball 
in full force. 

The geographical knowledge of the Comanches is confined within the small limits 
of their own actual observation. All beyond is, to their benighted minds, obscure and 
doubtful, and an Indian’s doubt is positive, unqualified disbelief. They are excessively 
incredulous of any facts, in relation to other countries, that conflict with their own 
experience. They have no settled, intelligible notion of the form or constitution of 
our planet, and none of the great planetary system. They know and can discriminate 
the north star, and are guided by it in their nocturnal journeys. They call it karmead- 
tasheno; literally, not-moving star. When or how this knowledge was acquired, I 
did not learn, and presume it is quite unknown to themselves. They recognize the 
sun as the great fountain of heat, but of its nature, or the manner of its dispensation, 
they know nothing and care nothing. They refer to time long past, by colds and 
heats; that is, by winters and summers; and although they pay much attention tc 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


237 


the phases of the moon, the revolutions of that planet are too frequent, and would 
soon involve too high numbers to constitute a mean of computing the chronology of 
events, that have transpired more than a year. For short periods, past or future, they 
count by moons, from full to full. The time of day they note by the apparent posi¬ 
tion of the sun in the heavens. 

The Comanche notions of religion are as crude, imperfect, and limited, as of 
geography or astrononiy. They believe in, or have some indefinite traditional idea of, 
the Great Spirit; but I never discovered any distinct mode or semblance of worship 
among them. I frequently observed, early in the morning, a shield, such as they use 
in war, elevated at the point of a javelin, (the hilt in the ground,) and invariably 
facing the east. Whether done in reverence to the great rising luminary, and of 
Ghebir origin, I did not ascertain. They believe in witchcraft, and sometimes attri¬ 
bute their ailments to the magical influence of some subtle and malignant enemy of 
their own species. They held the Kitchies, a small and distinct tribe then residing on 
the waters of the River Trinity, in peculiar detestation, on account of their supposed 
powers of sorcery. They imagine that good men (and adroitness and daring in taking 
scalps or stealing horses are capital evidences of goodness) are translated at death to 
elysian hunting-grounds, where buffalo are always abundant and fat. The reverse of 
this maximum of Comanche felicity is assigned to the wicked. In order to facilitate 
the posthumous enjoyments of a deceased warrior, they sacrifice some of his best 
horses, and bury in his grave his favorite implements of the chase for his future use. 
They have no determinate idea of the locality of these imaginary hunting-grounds. 
They mourn for the dead systematically and periodically with great noise and vehe¬ 
mence ; at which times the female relatives of the deceased scarify their arms and 
legs with sharp flints until the blood trickles from a thousand pores. The duration 
of these lamentations depends on the quality and estimation of the deceased; varying 
from three to five or seven days: after which the curtain of oblivion seems to be 
drawn around the grave. Whether this bloody rite of scarification has descended by 
tradition from the worshippers of Baal, is a question in elucidation of which they have 
no relic, oral or material, or other adumbration of evidence, beyond the obvious simi¬ 
litude of the act itself with a custom of the heathen of the antique Canaan. 

I perceived no order of priesthood, or anything analogous to it, among them; if 
they recognise any ecclesiastical authority whatever, it resides in their chiefs; but I 
think their religious sentiments are entirely too loose, vague, and inoperative, to have 
produced any such institution. The elevation of the shield is the only act I ever 
noticed among them, that afforded the slightest indication of religious concernment; 
and I doubt if they have any opinions relative to future rewards and punishments 
that exercise any moral influence upon them. They have nothing like a system of 
mythology, and neither do they entertain any religious myths of a traditionary or 
settled character. That impressions of this kind may be easily made upon them, is 


238 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


probable; for they are addicted to superstition, and apt to believe any absurdity, 
natural or preternatural, that does not conflict with their personal or natural vanity. 
But their minds are too little intent upon the subject of a future state, ever to have 
formed a conhected system of opinions in relation to it. If the doctrine of metempsy¬ 
chosis has ever been presented to them, it has not received a national or general 
credence: indeed, I doubt if they have -any common plan of religious belief, or of a 
supernatural agency operating on the affairs of this life, beyond the mystic vagaries 
of witchcraft; and of these, they do not distinctly believe in anything beyond the 
potentiality of human means. It may be assumed of them, as to all the practical 
results of religious sentiment, that “ the fool hath said in his heart, there is no God.” 

The country inhabited by the Comanches, at least that portion of it watered by the 
Colorado and its tributaries, is of a broken and varied surface—hilly, not mountainous. 
The valleys are generally small; some of them timbered, principally with the mus- 
quit; and some prairie : all of them covered with the best musquit grass, and affording 
the richest pasture. The soil, still in its virgin state, has the appearance of great 
fertility, but is, in general, too arid for successful culture, without artificial irrigation. 
The climate is 'exceedingly dry, and the protracted heats of the summer exhaust all 
humidity from the atmosphere, and from the soil. During the hot months the dews 
are light, and not very frequent. The' margins of the creeks, and of the Colorado, are 
belted with timber of the several varieties found in similar latitudes : the live-oak and 
pecan are abundant; the first found in beautiful groves on the hills and level uplands. 
Timber suitable for building is scarce, but stone abounds. No country is better 
adapted to raising stock of all kinds, and especially of horses; and Estremadura 
cannot excel it for sheep-walks. The principal animals are the migratory buffalo, 
bear, deer, some antelopes, wolves of several varieties, panthers, and mustangs, or 
wild horses, which last are obviously of a superior quality to those found on the level 
or coast prairies; rabbits, of several kinds, pole-cats, and prairie-dogs are abundant: 
these last burrow in the ground, and live in little subterranean villages; they partake 
more of the qualities of the squirrel than of the canine species. Of the feathered 
tribe, the buzzard predominates; these serve to guide the wanderer to an Indian camp, 
over which they generally hover, in anticipation of a plentiful repast at the evacuar 
tion. Wild turkeys are seen in large flocks; the small birds are scarce; owls, of 
several kinds, are plentiful, and render the night vocal with hoots and hideous screams; 
the cardinal (red-bird) inhabits the thickets, but it is seldom the ear is saluted with 
the carols of nature’s songsters in those sequestered regions. 

The country adjacent to the San Saba, a principal western tributary of the Colo¬ 
rado, exhibits frequent indications of minerals, particularly of iron, lead, and silver; 
I was shown a specimen of copper ore, found near the Brazos, high up, which was, 
apparently, almost pure. My informer, a Mr. Peyton Johnson, a very worthy man 
whom I found in the Comanche country, and who had visited the copper locality, 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


239 


assured me there were thousands of wagon-loads of ore, similar to the specimen, 
lyi n g on the surface of the ground. There is, beyond doubt, more iron-ore in the 
inland regions of Texas than timber to smelt it; and enough to close hoop the globe 
with railroads. Stone-coal will assuredly be found in abundance, for the distribution 
of nature’s bounties is ordinarily too equable and provident to permit the apprehension 
that a country abounding in the most useful and some of the precious metals should be 
destitute of the means to render them available. 

I never discovered or heard of any remains of ancient edifices or any tumuli, 
indicating the previous existence of a more enlightened race of men, in the Comanche 
country. Flints neatly formed into arrow-heads, are frequently found throughout 
Texas; some under ground, and some above — they are wrought into good shape and 
various sizes. The manner of their cleavage I do not know. The Indians now use 
iron points to their arrows; but the use of the bow and arrow is gradually diminishing, 
and giving way to that of fire-arms. 

The Lipans are a tribe of considerable importance, and may be ranked next to the 
Comanches among the Indians of Texas. They have affinity with the Seraticks and 
the Muscalaroes; and if estimated as identical with them, are very superior to the 
Comanches in numbers. They have never made war upon our frontier; and their 
present equivocal condition is to be regretted. They are more enterprising and war¬ 
like than the Comanches, who regard them with a respect, in which fear is a chief 
ingredient. Their habits are very similar to the Comanches in some respects; but 
they have made somewhat more progress towards civilization. Many of them speak 
the Spanish language, having formerly had much intercourse with the Mexicans. 
They can now raise about 200 warriors of their own band. The Seraticks live on the 
Rio Grande, above the Passo del Norte. Very little is known among us, in relation to 
them. The Muscalaroes inhabit the river Puerco, a considerable eastern affluent of 
the Rio Grande: — from the best information I have, they number 1000 to 1500 
warriors — are of dark complexion—peaceable in their habits—cultivate the ground 
and raise stock—have many horses and mules — also sheep, goats, and black cattle. 

The Tonkawas are a separate tribe, having no traceable affinity to any other band 
of Indians in the country. They are erratic—live on game, and are quite indolent 
— and often in extremity of suffering. They have generally been friendly to the 
whites, though often suspected of having stolen horses from the frontier. A few of 
these accompanied our small army in the campaign againt the Cherokees in 1839, and 
rendered good service. There are about 150 warriors of this tribe—they have 
usually warred within the limits of our settlements. 

The Whacoes—Tawacanies—Tow-e-ash—Aynics— San Pedro’s — Nabaduchoes— 
Nacado-cheets, and Hitchies, are small tribes or fragments of tribes, and, separately 
considered, are quite insignificant. They have been long resident in Texas, and 
properly belong to it —but they are, originally, the Hitchies excepted, of the Caddo 


240 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


stock, being offsets from that family. The Whacoes are the most considerable of these 
bands, amounting probably to 150 warriors, it being understood among Indians that 
every adult male is a warrior. They are a stealthy, thieving, faithless race, and have 
done much mischief, first and last, on our frontier. They live in a village on the 
Upper Brazos, and raise corn, beans, pumpkins, &c., and usually spend the winter 
months in hunting. The other small parties, amounting to about fifty families each, 
live in villages, on the waters of the Trinity and Neelies, and cultivate the ground to 
a small extent. 

The Hitchies, once a distinct and isolated tribe, have so intermarried with their 
neighbor bands, that they have lost their identity, and may be considered as merged 
into the common stock. The, Caddoes formerly resided on the Red River of Louis¬ 
iana, above Natchitoches and below the Great Raft, and were included in the juris¬ 
diction of the Indian Agency stationed in 1819 at Natchitoches. They removed to 
Texas a few years ago, and now claim to be Texas Indians. 

The Caddoes, Cherokees, Shawnees, Delawares, Kickapoos, and some others, parts 
of tribes, who have been allured into Texas by the amenity of its climate, the abun¬ 
dance of its game, and its comparatively waste condition, are altogether intruders 
here ; and had no right of habitation, until the late government of Texas, with great 
folly and indiscretion, entered into a treaty with several of them in 1844. By this 
unwise act, which would have proven vastly more mischievous if the country had 
remained in separate independence than it now can do, those bands acquired a sanc¬ 
tion to their intrusion and a right of settlement, irrespective of numbers; and their 
numbers would in all probability have been alarmingly increased by immigration from 
the northern tribes of the United States. Annexation has arrested this evil, and 
saved Texas from a dangerous influx of the most dissatisfied, loose, and savage of the 
several tribes from which the first intruders proceeded. And still it is believed they 
are constantly accumulating; and they are now thrown, by a silly and improvident 
policy of the government of the late Republic, upon the /State of Texas and her terri¬ 
tory. That they are tenants without title, and hold only at the will of the govern¬ 
ment, does not divest them of a recognised right of residence, to which they naturally 
attach a right of soil. Their peaceable removal, which the tranquillity of the State 
will soon require, is practicable only by the Federal Government. 

Although the subject is not comprised in the queries propounded by the department, 
I will suggest that the future peace and happiness of the large inland frontier of Texas 
requires an early intervention of the General Government, to adjust our complex 
Indian relations. It is quite impossible for the State, acting within her limited sove¬ 
reignty, to control and peaceably dispose of the various tribes resident within her 
territorial limits. The entire subjugation of the Comanches in particular, and pro¬ 
bably of other tribes, or their early removal, will be inevitable. The spread of our 
population will, in a very few years, so crowd upon the*Comanches’ ancient hunting- 


241 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 

grounds, as to compel them either to recede westward or to resist by arms a pro¬ 
gression which is perfectly irresistible to their feeble powers. The result of such an 
issue must be, their entire and absolute extermination 5 which, by the way, will not 
be effected without much disaster and bloodshed on our part. The Federal govern¬ 
ment alone is competent to prevent a catastrophe, which, however oppressive to 
the ancient occupants, is necessarily consequent to the progress of civilization. The 
State has not the means to extinguish the Indian titles to the spacious territory over 
which they roam in pursuit of the only means of subsistence they know, and which 
they claim by the emphatic right of occupancy for “time immemorial” to them. She 
cannot provide them another and more secure, because remote, country for their future 
habitation. Such country can be found only in the region of the Rocky Mountains, 
beyond the local jurisdiction of the States, and is disposable only by the Federal 
government. 

To effect this humane policy,—the only practical substitute for the actual extermi¬ 
nation of the Indians,—it is indispensable that the Federal government should become 
the proprietor of the vacant domain of Texas which comprehends the territory over 
which these erratic people wander in quest of game. To reclaim the Comanches 
from the chase, and adapt and reconcile them to the less attractive labors of agricul¬ 
ture, if it be not utterly impracticable, would require many years of experimental 
tuition, to the very initiative of which they are habitually averse, and which they 
never would consent to receive from the insulated and defective authority of the 
State. The general government only can manage this delicate subject, of so deep, 
abiding, and growing interest, happily for all parties, and without great blood-guilti¬ 
ness to some of them. 

Your Obedient Servant, 

Daniel G. Burnet. 

Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq. 


31 


5. INDIAN TRIBES OE NEW MEXICO. 


BY GOVERNOR CHARLES BENT. 

Governor Charles Bent, the author of the annexed memoir, who received his 
authority from General Kearny, fell before the perfidy of the assassins of Taos. 
New Mexico will long lament the loss of his experience and knowledge of Indian 
affairs. An extensive acquaintance with the tribes south of the Arkansas and Red 
Rivers, reaching to the Rio Grande and the regions west of it, had qualified him to 
make a just estimate of the character and population of the aboriginal tribes who rove 
over those vast and undefined plains, and mountain fastnesses. 

In his estimation of the tribes, the boundaries of New Mexico as known to the 
Spanish government were exclusively referred to. The subsequent changes made by 
an Act of Congress, has brought within its extreme western and southern limits, as 
now established, the elements of a new aboriginal population. Of the region lying in 
the Valley of the Colorado and north of the Gila, we are too little informed to speak 
with any degree of precision. The early Spanish adventurers do not profess to have 
explored it beyond Cibola. Coronada failed in this object of his celebrated expedi¬ 
tion. How far the apparently semi-civilized race, to whom the Spanish writers 
applied the term of “ Yumanos,” extended north and west into that area, we cannot 
decide. It may be expected that the Boundary Commissioner engaged in running the 
lines on that border, will obtain and communicate valuable information respecting the 
native population and character and resources of that frontier. The establishment of 
the territory of Utah, and the settlement of the boundary between Texas and New 
Mexico, affect likewise the estimates of Governor Bent. Respect has been had to 
these changes in the new estimates of population hereafter submitted. 

It is proper to say that this memoir, although dated some months before I com¬ 
menced my statistical inquiries, was placed in my hands by the Head of the Bureau, 
as the most authentic document in his possession; a character which, with these 
changes of boundary, it still preserves. 


Sir : 


Santa Fe, New Mexico, 

November lOtb, 1846. 


Having been appointed, by Brigadier General Kearny, Governor of the 
Territory of New Mexico, and, by virtue of that appointment, ex-officio Superintendent 

(‘242) 


243 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 

of Indian Affairs for said territory, it becomes my duty to lay before you the following 
information in regard to the .different tribes of Indians inhabiting and frequenting this 
territory. 

First I will mention the Apaches, or Jicorillas, a band of about 100 lodges, or 500 
souls. The Jicorillas have no permanent residence, but roam through the northern 
settlements of New Mexico. They are an indolent and cowardly people, living 
principally by theft committed on the Mexicans, there being but little game in the 
country through which they range, and their fear of other Indians not permitting 
them to venture on the plains for buffalo. Their only attempt at manufacture is a 
species of potter’s ware, capable of tolerable resistance to fire, and much used by them 
and the Mexicans for culinary purposes. This they barter with the Mexicans for the 
necessaries of life, but in such small quantities as scarcely to deserve the name of 
traffic. The predatory habits of these Indians render them a great annoyance to the 
New Mexicans. 

Second. The Apaches proper, who range through the southern portion of this . 
territory, through the country of the Rio del Norte and its tributaries, and westward 
about the head-waters of the River Gila, are a warlike people, and number about 900 
lodges, or from 5000 to 6000 souls; they know nothing of agriculture or manufactures 
of any description, but live almost entirely by plundering the Mexican settlements. 
For many years past they have been in the habit of committing constant depredations 
upon the lives and property of the inhabitants of this and the adjoining provinces, 
from which they have carried off an incredible amount of stock of all kinds. The 
only article of food that grows in their general range is the maguey plant, and that 
spontaneously, and in very small quantities. Several bands of the Apaches have, 
for some years past, received a bounty of so much per head, per diem, from the 
Government of the State of Chihuahua, with the object of inducing the Indians to 
cease their depredations; but without having the desired effect. 

Third. The Nabajos are an industrious, intelligent, and warlike tribe of Indians, 
who cultivate the soil, and raise sufficient grain and fruits of various kinds for their 
own consumption. They are the owners of large flocks and herds of cattle, sheep, 
horses, mules and asses. It is estimated that the tribe possesses 30,000 head of 
horned cattle, 500,000 head of sheep, and 10,000 head of horses, mules, and asses; 
it is not a rare instance for one individual to possess 5,000 to 10,000 sheep, and 400 
to 500 head of other stock. Their horses and sheep are said to be greatly superior 
to those reared by the New Mexicans. A large portion of their stock has been 
acquired by marauding expeditions against the settlements of this territory. They 
manufacture excellent coarse blankets, and coarse woollen goods for wearing apparel. 
They have no permanent villages or places of residence, but roam over the country 
between the River San Juan on the north, and the waters of the Gila on the south. 
The country between these two rivers is about 150 miles wide, consisting of high 


244 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


table mountains, difficult of access, and affording them, as yet, effectual protection 
against their enemies. Water is scarce, and difficult to be found by those not 
acquainted with the country: affording another natural safeguard against invasion. 

Their numbers are variously estimated at from 1000 to 2000 families, or from 
7000 to 14,000 souls. 

The Nabajos, so far as I am informed, are the only Indians on the continent, having 
intercourse with white men, that are increasing in numbers. They have in their 
possession many prisoners, men, women, and children, taken from the settlements of 
this territory, whom they hold and treat as slaves. 

Fourth. The Moques are neighbors of the Nabajos, and live in permanent villages, 
cultivate grain and fruits, and raise all the varieties of stock. They were formerly a 
very numerous people, the possessors of large flocks and herds; but have been reduced 
in numbers and possessions by their more warlike neighbors and enemies, the Nabajos. 
The Moques are an intelligent and industrious people; their manufactures are the 
same as those of the Nabajos. They number about 350 families, or about 2450 souls. 

Fifth. The Yutas inhabit the country north of the Nabajos, and west of the 
northern settlements of this territory. They number 800 lodges and about 4000 to 
5000 souls. Their range extends from the Nabajo country, in about latitude 35° to 
40° north. Their range of country is very mountainous and broken, abounding in 
deer, elk, bear, and other wild game, which serve them for food and raiment. They 
are a hardy, warlike people, subsisting by the chase. Several bands of them have 
been carrying on a predatory war with the New Mexicans for the last two years, and 
have killed and taken prisoners many of the people, and driven off large amounts of 
stock. Since General Kearny’s arrival, these Indians have sued for peace, and mea¬ 
sures are now taking to effect a permanent treaty. 

Sixth. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes range through the country of the Arkansas 
and its tributaries, to the north of this territory. They live almost entirely on the 
buffalo, and carry on a considerable trade both with the Americans and Mexicans in 
buffalo robes; for which they obtain all the necessaries not derived from the buffalo. 
They are a roving people, and have, for many years, been on friendly terms with the 
New Mexicans. The Arrapahoes number about 400 lodges, or 2000 souls. The 
Cheyennes number 300 lodges, or 1500 souls. * 

Seventh. The Comanches range east of the mountains of New Mexico ; a numerous 
and warlike people, subsisting entirely by the chase. Their different bands number 
in all about 2500 lodges, or 12,000 souls. They have been at peace for many years 
with the New Mexicans, but have carried on an incessant and destructive war with 
the states of Chihuahua, Durango, and Coahuila, from which they have carried off, 
and still hold as slaves, a large number of women and children, and immense herds 
of horses, mules, and asses. 

Eighth. The Kayuguas range through a part of the same country. They are similar 


245 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 

in habits and customs, and are considered a more brave people than the Comanches. 
They number about 400 lodges, or 2000 souls. 

Below I give a tabular statement of the population of the tribes of Indians ranging 
the country within the territory of New Mexico and its borders, made up from°the 
most reliable information that I have been able to obtain during a residence of many 
years in New Mexico and its vicinity. 


Apaches or Jicorillas . . 

. 100 

lodges . 

. . . 500 

Apaches proper .... 

8,900 

(6 

. . 5,500 

Yutas, Grando Unita Biver 

600 

(6 

. . 3,000 

Yutas, (Southern) . . . 

. 200 

U 

. . 1,400 

Nabajos. 

1,000 

families 

, . 7,000 

Moques. 

. 350 

U 

. . 2,450 

Comanches. 

2,500 

lodges 

. 12,000 

Kayaguas. 

400 

66 

. . 2,000 

Cheyennes . 

. 300 

66 

. 1,500 

Arapahoes. 

400 

u 

. . 1,600 


Total . . . 

. 36,950 


You will perceive by the above statement, that with New Mexico, nearly 40,000 
Indians will fall under the immediate superintendence of the United States govern¬ 
ment, and it becomes a subject of serious import, how these numerous and savage 
tribes are to be controlled and managed. 

As it becomes my duty by virtue of my office, to lay before you all the information 
I possess in regard to these tribes of Indians, I will also venture to make a few 
suggestions for your consideration. 

Agents and sub-agents are absolutely necessary for the regulation and control of the 
various tribes of Indians above named. 

A very desirable effect might be produced upon these Indians by sending a delega¬ 
tion from each tribe to Washington. They have no idea at this time of the power of 
the United States, and have been so long in the habit of waging war and committing 
depredations against the Mexicans with impunity, that they still show a disposition 
to continue the same kind of warfare, now that the territory is in possession of the 
United States. I am convinced that a visit to our Capital by some of the principal 
men of each of these nations, would secure future peace and quiet to the inhabitants 
of this territory. 

I would also suggest the propriety of sending with this delegation of uncivilized 
Indians, a delegation from the “ Pueblas,” or civilized Indians, who are by law citizens 
of this territory, and of the United States. They compose a very considerable 
portion of the population of New Mexico, and, if excited so to do, might cause a good 





246 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


deal of difficulty. A small expenditure by the government in this manner, now, 
might be the means of avoiding bloodshed hereafter. 

You are doubtless aware that presents of goods are indispensable in all friendly 
communications with Indians. I would respectfully suggest the necessity of goods 
of this kind, or the means wherewith to purchase them, being placed at the disposition 
of the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for this territory. 

I deem it highly necessary to establish stockade forts in the Yuta and Nabajo 
countries, with sufficient troops to keep these Indians in check, and from continuing 
their long-accustomed inroads in this territory. One should also be established at 
some suitable point on the Arkansas River, for the purpose of protecting travellers 
between this territory and Missouri, and the settlements that may be extended in that 
direction from the Indians in that vicinity. Another establishment of the kind will 
be required in the southern part of this territory, to serve as a safeguard against both 
the Apaches and Mexicans on the frontiers of the adjoining Mexican States, who, it 
may be confidently expected, will continue to make inroads on th s territory from that 
quarter for many years to come. 

I neglected to mention, in the proper place, that Colonel A. W. Doniphan received 
orders from General Kearny, before leaving the territory for California, to march his 
regiment against the Nabajos. Overtures of peace had been made to them without 
effect; they have continued their depredations up to this time. General Kearny, 
after leaving Santa Fe, wrote to me, advising that full permission should be given to 
the citizens of New Mexico to march, in independent companies, against these Indians, 
for the purpose of making reprisals, and for the recovery of property and prisoners. 
In conformity with his suggestion, I issued a proclamation to that effect. 

Colonel Doniphan left here a few days ago-, with his command, for the Nabajo 
country, and I feel confident that, with the aid of the auxiliary war-parties, he will 
soon compel the nation to sue for peace, and to make restitution of property and 
prisoners taken since the entrance of the American forces on the 18th of August last. 

The existing laws of the United States, regulating trade and intercourse with the 
Indians, are, doubtless, amply sufficient as applied to the Indians referred to in this 
communication, and, at your earliest convenience, I solicit your full and particular 
instructions in reference to the application of these laws in the regulation of the 
various Indian tribes above mentioned. 

By so doing, you will greatly oblige 

Your Truly Obedient Servant, 

Charles Bent. 


6 . DACOTAS OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 


BY THOMAS S. WILLIAMSON, M. D. 

The subjoined paper is from the pen of Dr. Thomas S. Williamson, of Ohio, who 
has spent several years among the Dacotas of the Mississippi. In addition to the 
historical information it conveys of a people who constitute the type of an immense 
group of prairie tribes, it possesses a particular value for the examination that is given 
of the medical and surgical knowledge of the Indians. Little has heretofore been 
done by physicians on this subject, and it is hoped it will attract further notice from 
the profession. The numbers refer to the printed inquiries, on the various heads of 
information which were issued in 1847. (Vide Appendix.) 

Dr. Williamson settles, definitely, the ancient locality of a portion of the river 
tribes of the Dacota stock at Milles Lacs, on Rum River, which is, apparently, the 
ancient location of the “Issati” of Hennepin, and thus restores full credence to this 
part of the intrepid missionary’s narrative. 

It is known that the Dacotas have, for more than two centuries, been receding 
before the fierce and warlike forest clans of the Algonquins, whom the French were 
the first to supply with fire-arms. The bow and arrow, on which the former long 
relied, however efficacious in the prairies, is a feeble instrument for men to contend 
with in thick forests. But, from whatever cause this tribe receded from the north 
and east at first, it is certain that they are still in the process of being pushed south, 
from their ancient seats, and annually find their hunting-grounds more pertinaciously 
intruded on. 

The population and statistics of the home band at St. Peters, which is given, may 
be deemed an earnest of what perseverance in the plan will accomplish. 


History of the Dacotas. 

1, 2, and 3. The Dacotas have resided near the confluence of the Mississippi and 
St. Peters for at least two hundred years. An intelligent man, who has been several 
years dead, told me they could not tell how long since their ancestors first came to 
this neighborhood, but suppose it to be equal to the lifetime of four old men, and 
perhaps more;—counting these lifetimes as 75 years each, would give three hundred 
years. They say they were residing in this neighborhood before the Assinniboins 
separated from them. In Vol. VI., page 30, of Lettres Edifantes, Paris, 1781, is a 


248 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


letter in which it is said, “ It is affirmed that the Assinniboins are a nation of the 
Sioux, which separated from them a long time ago.” This letter appears to have 
been written at Fort Bourbon, on Hudson Bay, about 1695, and the expression a long 
time ago, in this connection, would imply that the separation had taken place at least 
50 years previous to that time. The exact period at which they arrived in this 
neighborhood it is impossible to ascertain, but it seems highly probable it was 
between the time of the discovery of America by Columbus, and the landing of the 
Pilgrims at Plymouth, and nearer to the latter than the former event. They say 
that when their ancestors came to this country it was inhabited by Indians of other 
tribes, who left the country when they came into it. Most do not pretend to know 
who were the Indians that occupied the country before their ancestors, but some say 
they were Iowas. They say that their ancestors, before they came on to the Missis¬ 
sippi, lived at Mille Lac, which they call Isantamde. (Knife Lake.) From their 
having resided at that place probably comes the name Isanyati, (dwelling at the 
knife,) by which the Dacotas of the Missouri call those who live on the Mississippi 
and St. Peters. Most of those with whom I have conversed can trace their origin 
no farther than Mille Lac, but some tell of wars which their ancestors had with the 
Chippewas before they came thither; and I have been told that there are those who 
can trace their origin to the Lake of the Woods. Their traditions all show that they 
came from the North-east, and are moving to the South-west. Their proper name, 
Dacota, signifies allied, or leagued together, and is equivalent to our name United, as 
applied to the States, and all who are not Dacotas, or allies, are considered enemies, 
and it is deemed glorious to kill one of them, though descended from the Dacota 
family; as the similarity of language shows to be the case with not only Assinniboins, 
but the Winnebagoes, Iowas, Omahaws, Osages, and Quapaws. 

There are three grand divisions of the Dacotas: 1. The Isanyati, who reside on or 
near the waters of the Mississippi and St. Peters, and most of whom plant some corn. 
These are subdivided into the Mde-wahantonwan, Warpetonwan, Sisitonwan, and 
Warpekute, and altogether are between 5000 and 6000 souls. Within the memory 
of persons still living, these all lived near the Mississippi and St. Peters, within nar¬ 
rower space than they now occupy, their eastern limit being about the Falls of St. 
Croix, north, not far beyond the Falls of St. Anthony, and west, not far from the 
mouth of Blue Earth River. 

2 d. The Ihanktonwan, of which the Hunkpatidan and Ihan ton wanna are subdivi¬ 
sions. Tonwan signifies to dwell, or dwelling. Ihanktonwan signifies inhabiting the 
end or extremity, and probably was given them from their having formerly dwelt at 
the head-waters or extremities of the Mississippi or St. Peters, in which country they 
dwelt at the commencement of this century. They at present range over the immense 
prairies between St. Peters and Red River of Lake Winnepec on the north-east, and 
the Missouri on the south-west, often crossing the latter stream. A few of them plant 


l/ 


249 


*/ HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 

on an island in Lac Travers, and a few on the Missouri, but most of them depend for 
a subsistence entirely on the buffalo. Their numbers are variously estimated at from 
4000 to 8000, or even more. Their dialect differs considerably from that of the other 
divisions, and, like their location, seems to be intermediate between them. Where the 
W arpeton wan sound h-d, the Ihanktonwan sound k-n, and the Titonwan g-1. Thus 
the Oglala, a band of the Titonwan, are called by the Ihanktonwan, Oknaka, and by 
the Isanyati, Onkdaka, from a verb signifying to move as a family. In the Isanyati 
dialect, dan, at the end of words, signifies small, one, or only. The Ihanktonwan 
speak it na , and the Titonwan la. There are other dialectic differences, but they are 
such that a person who speaks one dialect well may make himself understood in the 
others. It is said the Assinniboins were formerly Ihanktonwan, who broke off in 
consequence of a quarrel caused by one man stealing another’s wife. 

3d. Titonwan constitute the last grand division of the Dacotas, and are said to be 
more numerous than both the others. They are divided into many bands, of which I 
cannot speak particularly. It is said that none of them plant, and but few of them 
are found to the north-east of the Missouri, but I have conversed with several Dacotas 
who say they remember when the Titonwan country was this side of the Missouri, on 
the Coteau, or hill of the prairie, extending eastward to the St. Peters and Blue Earth 
Rivers; and, until about the commencement of the present century, I think the 
Titonwan, at least occasionally, hunted in that country. In the Titonwan dialect, 
the sounds of 1 and g hard are both very common. In the other dialects the former 
is never heard, and the latter only at the end of words. 

Thomas S. Williamson, M. D. 

66 . Medicine. The difference in regard to the attention paid to the sick is greater 
among the Dacotas than among white men in the United States. Mothers frequently, 
and sometimes fathers, watch over their sick children with great assiduity, and mani¬ 
fest the strongest affection. But not only old and decrepid persons, but children also 
who have no_ near relatives, and sometimes those who have, are in sickness greatly 
neglected. Lads and young men, both in sickness and in health, receive usually more 
attention than any other class of persons. 

67. Anatomy. Dacotas, from their manner of cutting up animals, and the fre¬ 
quency with which all classes of them do it, must acquire far more knowledge of com¬ 
parative anatomy than most white men possess. Many of them are well acquainted 
with the names and general form of the bones, the principal viscera and the muscles, 
both in men and other animals; but I doubt whether any of them have any tolerable 
idea of the circulation of the blood. I am fully persuaded that most of them know 
nothing about it; one proof of which is, that they have but a single word by which 
to name nerves, tendons, veins, and arteries. 

32 


250 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


Their idea of the pathology of diseases is, that the spirit of something, perhaps a 
bear, deer, turtle, fish, tree, stone, worm, or of some deceased person, has entered into 
the sick person, and causes all the distress. 

68 . According to the theory above given, the pathology of all diseases being nearly 
the same, their professed medicine-men treat all diseases nearly alike. The main 
efforts are directed to expelling the spirit, whatever it may be, which it is expected 
the medicine-man will soon discover: and having informed the friends what it is, he 
usually requires them to be in readiness to shoot it as soon as he shall succeed in 
expelling it. This he attempts in the first place, by certain incantations and ceremo¬ 
nies, (see Plate 46,) intended to secure the aid of the spirit or spirits he worships, 
and then, by all kinds of frightful noises and gestures, and sucking over the seat of 
the pain with his mouth. As soon as he thinks he has succeeded, he gives the com¬ 
mand, and from two to six or more guns are fired at the door of the tent, to destroy 
the spirit as it passes out. 

Some of the medicine-men of the Dacotas rely entirely on conjuring as above 
described. Others use various remedies, the most common of which is scarifying the 
neighborhood of the pain, to which, after he has drawn what blood he can by sucking 
with his mouth, they sometimes apply tobacco, red pepper, or the pulverized root or 
bark of some of their native plants, among which is the pyrethrum, or pellitory of 
Spain. They also practise anointing, and sometimes steaming, and sometimes washing 
the pained part, or, where the pain is general, the whole body. These latter means, 
however, are not very frequently resorted to, but in nearly all cases of severe sick¬ 
ness they use fumigations; burning on a few coals, in a pan near the sick person, the 
leaves of the red cedar or other aromatic substance, and sometimes sugar. They are 
much pleased to get camphor, or any of the aromatic oils, or aqua ammonia, for the 
sick person to smell and to scent the tent in which he is. 

For pain in the head, they scarify the temples. For sick stomach, they endeavor 
to induce vomiting, and to this end administer the decoctions of certain plants, but 
have to rely mainly on tickling the throat with a feather. Those who have taken or 
witnessed the effect of antimonial emetics, in general greatly prefer them to any of 
their native emetics. 

For pain in the bowels, connected with constipation, they use certain roots or seeds 
of native plants, some of which purge promptly and occasionally severely, but most 
of which, either from something in their own nature, or in the manner of preparing 
them, are uncertain in their operation. On this account, they generally prefer castor 
oil, jalap, or salts, to any of their own purgatives. All who have taken both jalap 
and rhubarb, prefer the former, on account of its more prompt operation. 

To remove constipation and bring away bile, they use clysters, composed of decoc¬ 
tions of certain vegetables, which, in general, are much more efficacious than any of 
their purgatives, administered by the mouth. 










Cap! Eastman, IJ.S A. del. 


PrmtecL in Color by P o. Duval rlmad 


Rfl [E ® 0 (g 0 M H MAM A [PATflllp'if, 
















































. 















T- 



















HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


251 


69. They are very careful to coneeal from each other, except a few initiated, as well 
as from white men, a knowledge of the plants which they use as medicines, probably 
believing that their efficacy in some measure depends on this concealment. 

The purgative chiefly used by the Dacotas who reside on the Mississippi, is the 
Euphorbia corollata, a tall, handsome, branching plant, which grows abundantly in the 
open woods and prairies near the Mississippi, from Lake Pepin to St. Peters, and I 
know not how much farther. If found on the Upper St. Peters, it must be rare in 
that region, as I have no recollection of having seen it in the neighborhood of Lac qui 
Parle, where I resided for many years, and the Dacotas in that region are not 
acquainted with it. A small portion of the root is eaten, and the patient is forbidden 
to drink anything after eating it. It sometimes operates mildly and effectually; 
sometimes very violently; and occasionally irritates the bowels excessively, without 
causing any discharge. I once saw a Chippewa chief suffering from it in the latter 
way, whose death was attributed by his companions to his having drunk water after 
eating of this plant. I suspect it not very unfrequently proves fatal among the 
Dacotas. For their knowledge of this plant, and some others, and of the art of con¬ 
juring evil spirits out of the diseased, they acknowledge their indebtedness to the 
Chippewas. They mostly preserve the roots and barks which they use for medicines 
in the form of a coarse powder, and administer them in the form of decoction, being 
very particular in regard to the quantity of water used. One chief design of pulver¬ 
izing them, is to prevent others from discovering what they are. They are usually 
kept in skin bags; a bag being composed of the entire skin of some animal, with the 
hair on, and the otter and mink are most frequently used for this purpose. Often 
some other article is combined with that on which they chiefly depend, to disguise its 
taste and smell, and thus prevent it from being discovered. 

They mostly forbid their patients who are taking medicine, to drink anything 
except the water with which the medicine is combined, and have an idea that drinking 
water, either cold or warm, generates bile. Sometimes they allow them to drink soup, 
that is, the simple water in which com, flesh, or fish has been boiled, without any 
kind of thickening or seasoning. All the drinks which I have found them giving to 
the sick to quench thirst, are astringent, sometimes slightly bitter, and sometimes 
slightly mucilaginous. By far the most common, is a decoction of the root of a plant 
abounding in the western prairies, and commonly called red root, (ceanothus cana¬ 
densis.) 

69 and 74. Their country affords many carminative and aromatic plants, among 
which are calamus aromaticus, northern mint, and field thyme; but though they use 
these in water in which they wash, or in oil with which they anoint the patient, and 
still more frequently burn them as a perfume near the sick, I have never known an 
infusion of any of them used as a drink by a sick Dacota, except where they had 


252 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


been taught this use of it by white men. From the nature of the drinks which they 
allow in sickness, I infer that the assertion that they have not been subject to fevers, 
is in the main true, and that diarrhoeas have been frequent among them. 

In the twelve years which I have resided among them, I have conversed with the 
chiefs and some of the principal men of every village on the Upper Mississippi and 
St. Peters rivers, and I am persuaded, that if they possess any medicines of much 
value as internal remedies, the knowledge of them is confined to a few individuals. 
In saying this, I have reference not to the intrinsic value of their medicines, but to 
their value in comparison with other articles, well known to educated physicians. At 
first, they are all afraid to swallow any of our medicines; but such as have once 
experienced their efficacy, almost without exception, prefer them to their own, provided 
they can get the same article which they have used. 

74. Females, after parturition, and it is said after their monthly courses also, bathe 
themselves—swim, as they express it, in the nearest river or lake. This is, no 
doubt, a most efficacious means of arresting the hemorrhage in the former case, and 
probably imparts vigor to the constitution in the latter; for it is certain, Dacota females 
are far less subject to what are termed female complaints than white women. It is 
equally certain they are not exempt from such diseases, for I have seen among them 
a few cases of almost every form of such diseases. I have not learned that they have 
any remedies of value in such cases, and am persuaded, that if any such are known 
to them, the knowledge is confined to a few individuals. I have heard of females 
among them, who died in labor, and known one or more, who died shortly after 
parturition, probably from the effects of it. Going into water to arrest uterine 
hemorrhage, is in general not followed by any unpleasant consequences, even in winter; 
but I have seen one or two women who suffered severely in consequence of it, for 
months afterwards. One reason why female complaints are not more frequent among 
the Dacotas is, that amid the hardships to which Indian females are subjected, such 
diseases soon prove fatal to most of those in whom the vis medicatrix naturae is not 
adequate to effect a cure. They are acquainted with some plants, which, taken by preg¬ 
nant women, in many cases cause abortion, and sometimes prove fatal to the mother, as 
well as the child. It is commonly taken by those who have become pregnant without 
a husband, and not very unfrequently by those who have husbands, but do not wish 
to be encumbered with another child, mostly because they have already as many as 
they can carry, unable to follow them in moving. 

In cases of tedious labor, those who can procure it take two or three joints of the 
rattle of the rattlesnake, which they believe to be a medicine of much efficacy in such 
cases. I once inquired of one of their medicine-men, of more than ordinary intelli¬ 
gence, with whom I was intimate, in regard to the modus operandi of this article. 
He replied, “I suppose the child hears the rattle, and thinking the snake is coming, 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


253 


hastens to get out of the way.” As the rattle is pulverized before it is swallowed, he 
doubtless meant the spirit of the child of the rattle, &c. 

70. Blood-letting. — I am not aware that the Dacotas practise bleeding in fevers, 
except locally for the removal of some fixed pain; and then it is generally done by 
scarifying with a short piece of flint—sometimes with a knife;—the flowing of the 
blood is promoted by sucking the place with the mouth, and spirting the blood into a 
bowl of water. Sometimes they use a tube of horn as a cup, applying the larger end 
to the skin and taking the smaller in the mouth, but I think this is not common. 
Sometimes they cord the arm and open a vein; and for this purpose use an instrument 
smaller, but similar in form to the fleam used in bleeding horses. This instrument 
they make by tying a sharp piece of flint, or the point of one of their butcher knives, 
filed off and sharpened for the purpose, to a wooden handle. The point is held over 
the vein, and by a stroke driven into it as far as the handle will permit. The 
quantity of blood obtained, even in this way, is usually small, but sometimes they 
find it difficult to arrest the flow. Those who have had much intercourse with white 
men, when a vein is to be opened generally prefer to have it done by a white man. 
Many have applied to me to bleed them. Some for the removal of pains, but more, 
I think, on account of drowsiness, though in the latter case I have seldom acceded to 
their request. They cannot bear the loss of as much blood as white men. I have 
seldom, if ever, drawn to the amount of a pint from an Indian without inducing 
something like syncope, and have seen many sicken with the loss of one-fourth of 
that quantity. 

71 and 72. I have seen no instance of aneurism among the Dacotas, and the disease 
is extremely rare among the white population of the Valley of the Mississippi, except 
the few who are in the habit of using fermented drinks. 

They are not acquainted with any styptics, of much power, in arresting hemorrhage 
from wounds. Very many have applied to me for something for this purpose; and 
those to whom I have given alum, blue vitriol, or Turlington’s balsam, have generally 
returned, after a time, highly commending the medicine and begging for more. They 
also highly value cerates, unguents, and medicated oils — such as camphorated oil, 
Seneca oil, and opodeldoc; also plasters, such as Burgundy pitch, but I have known 
of no instance of their using any thing of the kind of their own manufacture. Never¬ 
theless, there are individuals amongst them who are very successful in treating wounds 
and burns. This is doubtless owing chiefly to the great assiduity with which they 
watch their patients, seldom having more than one at a time. But it is not owing 
wholly to this. Some of them know how and when to promote or arrest a purulent 
discharge, as well as most regular physicians. They are especially successful in drying 
and healing running sores. One of the articles used for this purpose is the dry, pul- 


254 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


verized root of the asclepies tuberose. I have seen pieces of the inner bark of some 
species of pine, boiled till it was soft, applied to an extensive surface which had been 
scalded so as to raise and partially remove the cuticle, some days previous, and it 
acted not less advantageously than the best preparations furnished by our drug-stores. 
They make lints of slippery-elm bark, and use them skilfully to promote the discharge 
of pus from wounds or abscesses; and they wash out such places with syringes of 
their own manufacture. The number of those who have such skill in the treatment 
of sores and wounds is not great, and they are chiefly from among the Mde-Wakan- 
tonwan, who have had much more intercourse with the Chippewas, and with white 
men, than others of their tribe. This seems to confirm their assertion that they 
have acquired their knowledge of medicine from that tribe. The roots and barks 
which they apply to wounds and burns, are generally prepared for that purpose by 
mastication, and are spread on thinly and suffered to dry. Sometimes they cover it 
over with moistened paper, to make it adhere, or to protect the surface from the 
external air. 

73. Amputation.— The Dacotas never amputate a limb, but laugh at the folly of 
white men for doing it. I have heard individuals, to whom it was proposed, declare 
that they would rather die than have an arm or foot cut off. There may be, and I 
suppose are, a few individuals skilful in the application of splints and bandages, and 
of compresses to arrest hemorrhage; but where I have witnessed the use 1 of such 
things, they were applied without skill or success, which was the occasion of my 
seeing them. 

For carrying the sick or wounded, or a dead body, they make a litter speedily and 
skilfully, more so than is common among white men. For this purpose they take two 
poles, four or five feet longer than the person to be carried, and place them on the 
ground parallel, and two or three feet apart. Across these, at proper distances, are 
laid two short poles, at right angles with the first, and these are tied firmly to their 
places by leathern thongs. Over these poles is laid a blanket or buffalo-robe, which is 
stretched and tied in the same way. On this the invalid is laid. Two carrying 
straps are now tied to the ends of the long poles, in such a way that when the 
carrier stands between them, with the middle of the strap resting firmly on the top 
of his head, he can easily seize the ends of the poles in his hands. When they move, 
a person at each end of the litter stoops, and having adjusted the strap across his 
head, seizes the long poles with his hands, and rises, (if need be, with the assistance 
of some of the by-standers,) and they march off, each walking in the path, and in this 
way a person sick or wounded is sometimes carried securely many miles in a day, 
through a country destitute of any road for wheel-carriages or horses. 

74. So far as I have had an opportunity of observing, they have very little skill in 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


255 


the treatment of imposthumes and eruptions; generally choosing to apply to them any 
kind of grease. They know that imposthumes should be opened, hut most of them 
are afraid to have the operation performed. Proper phlegmons are very rare among 
them, while carbuncles are frequent. Scrofulous swellings and sores are also fre¬ 
quent, especially when they subsist chiefly on corn and muskrats. 

Their failure in the treatment of small-pox is owing to the fact that it is a febrile 
disease, and they know nothing about the proper treatment of fevers. 

Men sometimes conjure over, and sometimes administer medicine to, parturient 
women. I have heard of no instance of their doing more, but cannot say they never 
do. I have heard of one case in which the hand of the child presented, and after 
twelve or twenty-four hours it was supposed the child was dead, and, to save the life 
of the mother, the arm was cut off, and the child brought away in pieces, but the 
operation was performed by women who professed no particular skill in such business, 
but did it because they were hired to do so. 

75. Paralysis they always attribute to the agency of some spirit; generally that of 
some deceased person. Of course, the treatment consists entirely in efforts to drive 
away the spirit by conjuring and uncouth noises. They use the vapor-bath, made by 
pouring water on hot stones, sometimes successfully for the treatment of rheumatic 
pains, and, perhaps, of other diseases also. This bath is also used for the removal of 
ceremonial uncleanness, such as created by killing a person, or touching a dead body. 

106 and 108. Legislation of Congress. —Laws made for the benefit of Indians 
should be equal laws, inflicting the same punishment on the perpetrator of a crime, 
whether he be white, black, or red, and affording equal protection to the persons and 
property of all. Many of the present laws are unequal; — at least, as interpreted by 
the agent near Fort Snelling, — and they are nearly useless; for where two races of 
men come in contact, unequal laws, in favor of the weaker, can never be enforced 
against the stronger. As the law is interpreted, if a white man kills an Indian, the 
officers of the United States must seize him and have him punished; but if an Indian 
kills an Indian, they must not interfere. The law denounces a heavy penalty against 
persons carrying intoxicating drinks into the Indian country; but our agent says 
Indians are not persons, in the eye of the law; and so the country is flooded with 
intoxicating drinks, and murders are frequent; and for these offences no one is 
punished according to law. If the law denounced a proper penalty against every 
individual who steals or destroys another’s property, whether he be Indian or white 
man, and made provision for remunerating the injured individual in all cases where 
the guilty has any property or claims on the United States government, the Indian 
would be stimulated to industry by the prospect of improving his condition. At 
present he has no such stimulus; for if by superior industry or economy he should 


256 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


acquire any species of property which his neighbors have not, he knows that the 
envy of some of them will be aroused, who will take or destroy it, and that he can 
have no redress. 

A law to prevent, in time to come, white men who cannot read and write from 
entering the Indian country, either as boatmen or otherwise, would be useful in 
promoting civilization among the Indians. At present most of the labor in the Indian 
country is performed by unlearned foreigners, whose influence on the Indians is inju¬ 
rious in several ways, but chiefly as it tends to make labor dishonorable. 

111. One of the most effectual laws which could be made to prevent the introduc¬ 
tion of ardent spirits into the Indian country, would forbid any person from keeping 
alcoholic drinks on lands the property of the United States, and require the officers of 
the army, when they have reason to suspect that such drinks are kept in any house 
on such lands, to search the house, and in case intoxicating drinks are found, to 
destroy all such drinks and the house or houses in which they may be found. It 
would tend much to promote the same object, if, in all future treaties with the 
Indians for the purchase of land, it should be stipulated that so far as intoxicating 
drinks are concerned, the lands ceded shall be considered Indian country till the same 
shall be sold; or at least, till they shall be surveyed and offered for sale. 

115. Among a people like the Dacotas, annuities should in all cases, as far as prac¬ 
ticable, be paid to heads of families rather than the chiefs. Many of the horses given 
to the Dacotas and distributed by their chiefs, have been shot soon after they were 
distributed, because some of those who received none have thought they had as good 
a right to a horse as some of those who received one. To guard against this, when 
horses or cattle are sent to Indians in payment of annuities, a sufficient number should 
be sent at one time to give one to each family, or a greater amount of money or goods 
should be given to those who do not get a horse or cow, so that all the families, in 
proportion to the number of members they contain, might be nearly on an equality. 


Thomas S. Williamson. 


7. THE SMALL-POX, A SCOURGE TO THE ABORIGINES. 


No disease which has been introduced among the tribes, has exercised so fatal an 
influence upon them as the small-pox. Their physicians have no remedy for it. Old 
and young regard it as if it were the plague, and, on its appearance among them, 
blindly submit to its ravages. 

This disease has appeared among them periodically, at irregular intervals of time. 
It has been one of the prominent causes of their depopulation. Ardent spirits, it is 
true, in its various forms, has, in the long run, carried a greater number of the tribes 
to their graves; but its effects have been comparatively slow, and its victims, though 
many, have fallen in the ordinary manner, and generally presented scenes less revolt¬ 
ing and striking to the eye. 

This malady swept through the Missouri Valley in 1837. It first appeared on a 
steamboat, (the St. Peters,) in the case of a mulatto man, a hand on board, at the 
Black-Snake Hills, a trading post, 60 miles above Fort Leavenworth, and about 500 
miles above St. Louis. It was then supposed to be measles, but, by the time the boat 
reached the Council Bluffs, it was ascertained to be small-pox, and had of course been 
communicated to many in whom the disease was still latent. Every precaution 
appears to have been taken, by sending runners to the Indians, two days ahead of the 
boat; but, in spite of these efforts, the disease spread. It broke out among the Man- 
dans about the 15th of July. This tribe, which consisted of 1600 persons, living in 
two villages, was reduced to 31 souls. It next attacked the Minnetarees, who were 
living in that vicinity, and reduced that tribe from 1000 to about 500. The Aricka- 
rees, numbering 3000 souls, were diminished to some 1500. 

The disease passed from these to the Assiniboins, a powerful tribe of 9000, living 
north of the Missouri, and ranging in the plains below the Rocky Mountains, towards 
Red River of Hudson Bay, whole villages of whom it nearly annihilated. This tribe 
had their principal trade with Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellow-Stone. 

The Crows, or Upsarokas, extending west from this point across the plains to the 
Rocky Mountains, who were estimated at 3000 strong, shared nearly the same fate, 
and lost one-third of their numbers. 

It then entered and spent its virulence upon the great nation of the Blackfeet, who 
are known under the various names of Blood Indians, Piegans, and Atsinas. They 
have been estimated at 30,000 to 50,000. The inmates of 1000 lodges were destroyed. 
The average number in a lodge is from six to eight persons. 

33 


(257) 


258 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


Granting everything that can be asked on the score of excitement and exaggeration, 
not less than 10,000 persons fell before this destroying disease, in a few weeks. An 
eye-witness of this scene, writing from Fort Union on the 27th of November, 1837, 
says :—“ Language, however forcible, can convey but a faint idea of the scene of deso¬ 
lation which the country now presents. In whatever direction you turn, nothing but 
sad wrecks of mortality meet the eye; lodges standing on every hill, but not a streak 
of smoke rising from them. Not a sound can be heard to break the awful stillness, 
save the ominous croak of ravens, and the mournful howl of wolves, fattening on the 
human carcasses that he strewed around. It seems as if the very genius of desolation 
had stalked through the prairies, and wreaked his vengeance on everything bearing 
the shape of humanity.” 

Another writer says : — “ Many of the handsome Arickarees, who had recovered, 
seeing the disfiguration of their features, committed suicide; some by throwing them¬ 
selves from rocks, others by stabbing and shooting. The prairie has become a grave¬ 
yard; its wild-flowers bloom over the sepulchres of Indians. The atmosphere, for 
miles, is poisoned by the stench of the hundreds of carcasses unburied. The women 
and children are wandering in groups, without food, or howling over the dead. The 
men are flying in every direction. The proud, warlike, and noble-looking Blackfeet 
are no more. Their deserted lodges are seen on every hill. No sound but the raven’s 
croak, or the wolf’s howl, breaks the solemn stillness. The scene of desolation is 
appalling, beyond the power of the imagination to conceive.” 


8. TRIBES ON THE SANTA FE TRAIL, AND AT THE 
FOOT OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 


The tendency of the Indian population, which stretches over the prairies east of the 
Rocky Mountains, is towards the south and south-west. The Cheyennes, or Chawas, 
who once lived on a tributary of the Red River of Hudson’s Bay, crossed the Mis¬ 
souri, in consequence of the arrival of the Algonquin tribes on the sources of the 
Mississippi. The latter went as far north as the summit of the Portage du Trait, 
in their progress towards Athabasca Lake. The Chawas are now found very high 
on the Nebraska, and pressing onwards southward, below the mountains. The Sioux, 
or Dacotas, of the Missouri are pressing in the same direction, occupying positions less 
westerly. The Dacotas of the Mississippi, who have not yet broken up their more 
easterly villages in Minnesota, are destined to pass in the same direction. The pres¬ 
sure upon these tribes is from the north. They have receded, in the last quarter of 
a century, (dating from the treaty of boundaries of Prairie du Chien, in 1825,) before 
the military ardor of the Algonquins, and cannot now be said to have permanent or 
safe footing north of the river St. Peters. 

The Arapahoes, who infest the sources of the Platte and Arkansas, are a part of the 
Atsina, or Fall Indians of the Blackfoot stock, and once lived on the Assinabwoin and 
Saskatchiwine. The Minnatarees and Gross Ventres proper, who speak the Absaroka or 
Crow language, are, to a great extent, mingled with the parent tribe, and occupy the 
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. These snowy peaks are so elevated as to 
prevent their being crossed at any point between the Jefferson Fork of the Missouri 
and the Southern Pass, at the sources of the Nebraska. This fact appears first to 
have been demonstrated by the party of Mr. Hunt, who, in 1810, attempted, under 
Mr. Astor’s auspices, a more northern pass, but who were, eventually, after skirting 
the mountains, thrown upon the head-waters of that river. 

Mr. Thomas Fitzpatrick, the government agent for the higher Platte and Arkansas, 
refers to this concentration of Indian population below the mountains, and on the 
plains leading to Santa F4, as one of the pregnant causes of the difficulties and 
dangers which have, of late years, beset the path of the merchant and emigrant. 

Of the bands south of the range of his extensive agency, as observed in 1847, his 

estimates of population require to be compared with those of the late Governor Bent, 

( 259 ) 


260 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


of New Mexico, of 1846, and of Ex-President Burnet, of 1847, herewith furnished, 
and of Mr. Robert S. Neighbours, Special Agent in Texas in 1847. 

Mr. Kirkpatrick, from whose-correspondence we introduce extracts, has had much 
experience in the adventurous scenes of that district, speaks some of the Indian lan¬ 
guages, and communicates his views and opinions with a degree of confidence which 
is the result of a long acquaintance with life in the Indian country. He communicates 
the important fact, before indicated by imperfect vocabularies, that the Comanches of 
Texas are but an off-shoot of the Shoshonee or Snake stock; that their several bands 
speak close dialects of the same language as the mountain tribes'; and that this 
language, in its several dialects, spreads through the great Salt Lake Basin to California, 
as well as northwardly into the Columbia Valley. 

Of the mass of the strength of the aboriginal population south of these limits we 
can speak with less confidence than of the bold, predatory, and reckless hordes north 
of them. 

“My own imperfect knowledge of the country,” he observes, “and its inhabitants 
south of the Santa Fe trail, in the direction of Texas, prevents me from saying any¬ 
thing positive upon the subject. Yet I believe that the Comanche Indians do not 
exceed 1000 lodges, and as it is rare that more than one warrior occupies a lodge, 
amongst them, we may put them down at the very utmost, 1200 warriors. They are 
divided into three different and distinct bands; but who always, and when necessary, 
unite and co-operate in concert. Those bands have different names, but speak the 
same language, which is that of the Shoshonee or Snake on the west side of the 
Rocky Mountains, as well as great numbers of Indians on, and south of the Columbia 
River, and those inhabiting the Great Desert west of the Great Salt Lake, and on the 
very confines of California; all speak a dialect of the same language. The names of 
the different bands are as follows : Yampatick-ara, Cools-on-tick-ara, Penoi-in-tickara, 
all of which are Snake or Shoshonee words, and being translated into English, mean, 
Root-eaters, Buffalo-eaters, Sugar or Honey-eaters. These three bands, united with 
the Kioways, which are very few in number, are what we have to contend with at 
present on the Santa Fe road.” 

In the month of October, 1848, the same observer takes a deeper view of this 
pressing and irresponsible mass. 

“ The subject of the printed circular accompanying a series of inquiries respecting 
the ‘History, Present Condition, and Future prospects of the Indian Tribes of the 
United States/ (Vide Appendix,) is one of immense magnitude, and would require 
years of close application and study, besides a perfect knowledge of their various 
tongues, and that knowledge too, being in the individual himself, as it is somewhat 
difficult to reach any subject in regard to those people, through any interpreter I have 
ever met in this country, apart from the ordinary concerns of every-day life. It is a 
remarkable fact, that the most ignorant and weak-minded are those who most readily 



HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


261 


acquire a knowledge of the Indian tongues orally. From this cause it is a very 
difficult matter to arrive at anything like correctness. And to it may be attributed 
the many falsehoods and exaggerations put forth to the world, by travellers and 
others, who obtained their information from men who had neither a proper knowledge 
of their own mother tongue nor of that of the Indian. And in nine cases out of ten 
such persons do not and cannot comprehend what the book-makers, or travellers, wish 
to arrive at, because they are subjects that never before entered their minds. These 
remarks will apply equally to all the writing I have ever read on the subject; at 
least so far as my own opinion goes. I will further remark, I fear the real character of 
the Indian can never be ascertained, because it is altogether unnatural for a Christian 
man to comprehend how so much depravity, wickedness, and folly, could possibly 
belong to human beings, apparently endowed with a reasonable share of understanding. 
Let the civilized man, if possible, divest himself of all partiality and prejudice, and 
view the Indian impartially, just as he finds him, without attempting to cast imputa¬ 
tions on anything but the right cause, which is their own innate proneness to evil, 
and it will be found that that very innate principle of wickedness and depravity, is 
the great cause of hastening them off to destruction; I believe, moreover, that all 
the aid from the wealthiest governments of Europe, united with that of the United 
States, could not redeem or save a tithe of those people, inasmuch as I consider 
them a doomed race, and they must fulfil their destiny. Yet it is a generous and 
praiseworthy exertion in the government to do all it can for them. 

In regard to the manners, customs, habits, &c., of the wild tribes of the Western 
Territory, a true and more correct type than any I have ever seen, may be found in 
the ancient history of the Jews or Israelites after their liberation from Egyptian 
bondage. The ‘ Medicine Lodge ’ of the Indian may be compared to the place of 
worship or tabernacle of the Jews; and the sacrifices, offerings, purifications, ablu¬ 
tions, and anointings, may be all found amongst and practised by those people. 

The customs of Indian women at certain periods and after childbearing, are almost 
those of the Jewish women. They have to undergo a probation of a certain number 
of days on all such occasions, besides ablutions and purifications, before they are 
considered fit to enter on their domestic duties; during this probation they are consi¬ 
dered unclean, and altogether unfit to enter the lodge or join with the family; which, 
indeed, they never attempt; but erect a hut for themselves, where they remain the 
whole time; having their food brought to them. 

The manner of mourning for a deceased relative is very similar to that of the 
Israelites; in such cases the men will cast off all their finery, and put on instead (if 
they put on anything) the most worthless garments, and keep their heads, and often 
the body, bedaubed with white clay during the time of mourning, which sometimes 
lasts ten moons; this might be called putting on sackcloth and ashes. The women,, 
on the other hand, cut off their hair, and otherwise disfigure their persons by cutting 


262 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


with a flint or sharp stone their face, arms, and legs, in such a way as to let a great 
deal of blood flow in the operation, which is never washed off until they cease to 
mourn. 

In cases of death, if the deceased happens to be a distinguished man, they will kill 
for his use two or three of his favorite horses, and inter with him arms, pipe, and 
tobacco, with many articles which he was known to have fancied when alive. 
They do not seem to be inclined to bury their dead in the ground, although they 
sometimes do so, and in a very careless manner, as the wolves invariably dig them 
up; they will sometimes put them high up in large trees, until decomposition takes 
place, and nothing is left but the bones and hair, which they will gather carefully and 
perhaps carry about with them for a length of time, or until they find a favorable 
spot, where they will deposit them without ceremony, and, I believe, privately. But 
their favorite places of interment are in caves or crevices of rock, from which they are 
never removed. 

There could be very numerous and similar analogies made between the manners 
and customs of those people, and those of the Jews; but when we see nearly the same 
traits of character, manners, customs, &c., manifested in every part of the globe where 
a barbarous people have been found, I have come to the conclusion that man in that 
state is pretty much the same sort of being throughout, except what difference may 
naturally arise from the physical adaptation of the country they inhabit in supplying 
their wants. 

In regard to the Indians of this agency, as well as all the roaming tribes of this 
vast extent of country, I can assert with a great degree of certainty, that they have 
no fixed laws, or anything like permanent institutions, by which to regulate their 
concerns, either between themselves or other tribes, except what may be decided from 
time to time in their councils, or from emergencies arising out of the uncertainty of 
their relations with other tribes; and to this fact alone may be attributed their con¬ 
stant warring on each other; as the most insignificant being of any one tribe may be 
the cause of bringing on a war with any other tribe, which may last for years, and 
without the least dread of punishment from his own tribe. In proof of this, I will 
relate an occurrence which took place here a short time ago. The Cheyennes, who 
were encamped near, came to the Fort for the purpose of honoring us with a dance; 
which is the usual custom of those tribes when they wish to exibit their satisfaction 
for the treatment received. They were dressed in all the wildness and decoration of 
their native costume, and altogether made a very interesting appearance. They 
commenced and pursued the dance with all the wild and varied gesture of such scenes, 
until an old woman entered the circle of the dance, apparently bleeding from every 
pore; her face, legs, and arms were bleeding profusely, which gave her a most hideous 
appearance. In this state, she exhorted the warriors in her behalf, and “ to take pity 
on her; that she was old, and had had her only son killed by the Aripahoes last 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


268 


spring, and the murder has never been atoned for.” At this critical juncture a 
courier came running in with intelligence that people were discovered in the distance. 

The warriors immediately broke up the dance, mounted their best horses, and 
pursued the strangers; and late that night returned with two Arapahoe scalps, and a 
squaw as prisoner. This circumstance, no doubt, reconciled the old woman for the 
loss of her only son. This law of retaliation, or some mode of remuneration in the 
shape of payment for the slain, is the only law recognised by the natives of this 
country. I have taken measures to put a stop to further bloodshed for the present; 
but where there is no law to punish individuals for committing depredations on other 
tribes, not even in the most aggravated case, their relations of good fellowship must 
always be in a very precarious state. 

I shall make it my business, hereafter, to take more pains in investigating the 
various subjects contained in the series of inquiries received; but I consider it highly 
improper to write anything at random, for the information of the Department, and 
therefore will decline saying much at present, except that which I am convinced of 
being correct; and I sincerely wish that every one whose business it is to write on 
this subject, would adopt the same course. Then, indeed, we might have hopes of 
some change for the better management of the Indian tribes. Nothing, in my opinion, 
has been more prejudicial to the welfare and improvement of the Indians within the 
territory of the United States, than the great forbearance and constant humoring of 
all their whims, together with the erroneous opinion existing, that nothing but the 
introduction of Christianity was wanting to make them happy and prosperous. 

I am not one of those who expect and look for the immediate improvement and 
civilization of the Indian tribes by the means generally recommended, as I am well 
aware they will have to pass through a long and protracted ordeal, before they can 
even attain the first step to civilization; and I have yet to learn and decide, whether 
the full-blooded Indian is capable of such a change, inasmuch as I have never dis¬ 
covered any great advancement, either moral or physical, (the many favorable 
reports to the contrary notwithstanding,) which makes me very sceptical on the 
subject. I have met with but few Indians whom I thought were prepared to receive 
instruction in civilization and Christianity, which are some of the tribes on the 
Columbia River and its tributaries; and to the severe but just administration of the 
Hudson Bay Company may be attributed their now prosperous state. On their first 
acquaintance with whites, the Oregon Indians were disposed to be mischievous, as 
all other Indians: but after the British took possession of that country, and the 
Hudson Bay-Company established there, the Indians were taught very severe lessons, 
on all and every occasion when they misbehaved; and not the slightest injustice or 
crime was ever allowed to pass unpunished. And at length they ascertained, that to 
do unto others as they would have others do unto them, is by far the best policy; 
they also learned that the God of the white people was by far the most powerful, and 


264 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


have for many years been desirous of learning how to worship and please Him. And 
long before a missionary went into that country, those people were as honest, kind, 
and inoffensive as any I have ever met, either civilized or savage, and, I believe, in a 
few years will be in a more prosperous state than any Indians within the boundary 
of the United States. There is a great deal which ought to be taught an Indian 
before the attempt is made to Christianize him; some of which tuition may be taken 
from the remarks above, in regard to the Columbia Indians.” 

It has been thought right to present this view of the state of the prairie-tribes, from 
a man whose means of observation, good general judgment, and honesty of purpose 
in the public service, are unimpeached. So far as respects their manners and cus¬ 
toms, their wild and predatory lives, and the utter want of reference of their acts to 
any moral or legal standard, these remarks are sustained by the best and latest 
authorities; and this wild and irresponsible state of life is well described by Mr. 
Parkman as existing among the Arapahoes. With regard to Christianity, and its 
application to such tribes, surrounded by so many continually pressing circumstances, 
to prevent its appreciation, introduction, or spread, it need only be said, that the 
observations denote an entire misapprehension of the subject. Fixity of location and 
agricultural industry are among the very first fruits aimed at by our teachers among 
all the nomadic tribes, without which no success can be anticipated. As a general 
fact, these tribes are surrounded by circumstances which are so perilous that they 
are, at present, very much beyond the circle of practical missionary effort. 


9. SOME INFORMATION RESPECTING THE CREEKS, OR 

MUSCOGEES. 


Little has been written respecting the traditions of the Muscogees. The wild and 
extravagant relations respecting a powerful people, who are described as residing in 
Florida in the 16th century, under the name of Apalachites, appear to be better 
suited to the purposes of romance than history. 1 

The following traditions and opinions of their origin, early history, and customs, are 
from the lips of Se-ko-pe-chi, (Perseverance,) one of the oldest Creeks, now living in 
their new location west of the Mississippi. They were taken down from his narration, 
by Mr. D. W. Eakins, who was for some time a resident of the territory now occupied 
by them west of the state of Arkansas, and have been communicated in reply to the 
printed inquiries issued in 1847, respecting the History, Present Condition, and Future 
Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States. (Vide Appendix.) 

There is a general reluctance, on the part of the Creeks, to enter at all upon sub¬ 
jects of this character, owing in a measure to their superstitious notions, and more, 
perhaps, to their innate disposition to secrecy, and the general spirit of concealment. 

The admission of an inter-tribal rank, in ancient days, inferior to the ancient Lenno 
Lenapi, and their concurrence in the general title of Grandfather, ascribed by the 
North Atlantic tribes to that important branch of the Algonquin stock, denotes a more 
recent origin to their nationality than has been supposed to exist; and adds but 
another proof to the many we have had before, of the limited character of the Indian 
traditions, and the recent date of their entire tribal relations. 

There is nothing in these reminiscences of Se-ko-pe-chi, which can be employed to 
sustain an opinion that the Muscogees are, in anywise, to be deemed as having 
founded their nationality on pre-existing tribes, of any known historical era, who 
were semi-civilized. 

The advance of the masses in this tribe, in late years, has not kept pace with that 
of the families of their chieftains. The authority of the latter, founded on ancient 
distinctions and the force of descents, appears to commend itself, very generally, to 
continued respect and adherence. 

It is necessary, in the following inquiries, to conceive the Muscogee chronicler, Se- 
ko-pe-chi, as the respondent. The views of Mr. Eakin, where they are given as 


34 


Vide Davis’ Caribees. London, 1666. 


(265) 




266 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


independent opinions, will be readily distinguished, and are evidently moulded, in 
some instances, on the queries before him. The true grounds of the interrogatories 
are, however, seldom, if ever, misconceived by him, unless it be in the policy to cede 
surplus territories when they have become denuded of game, and, perhaps, the true 
extent of the civil power of the chiefs. — Ed. 

“ 1. The origin of the Alabama Indians, as handed down by oral tradition, is, 
that they sprang out of the ground, between the Cahawba and Alabama Rivers. 

2. The Muscogees formerly called themselves Alabamians, but other tribes called 
them Oke-choy-atte, (life). The earliest migration recollected, as handed down by oral 
tradition, is, that they emigrated from the Cahawba and Alabama Rivers, to the 
junction of the Tuscaloosa and Coosa Rivers. Their numbers, at that period, were 
not known. The extent of the territory occupied at that time was indefinite. At the 
point formed by the junction of the Tuscaloosa and Coosa Rivers, the tribe sojourned 
for the space of two years. After which, their location was at the junction of the 
Coosa and Alabama Rivers, on the west side of what was subsequently the site of 
Fort Jackson. It is supposed that at this time they numbered fifty effective men. 
They claimed the country from Fort Jackson to New Orleans, for their hunting- 
grounds. 

3. They are of the opinion that the Great Spirit brought them from the ground, 
and that they are of right possessors of this soil. Before the settlement of what is 
now known as New Orleans, they discovered, at that place, two Mexicans; and at a 
subsequent period, during a visit, they met with a large number of whites. The first 
sale of lands by treaty took place in New York : the date is not recollected. 1 They 
first became acquainted with the use of fire-arms, clothing, &c., through the Spaniards. 
Ardent spirits have been in use among the tribe, beyond the recollection of the oldest 
citizens. Their first places of trade were at Mobile and New Orleans. 

4. They believe that before the Creation there existed a great body of water. 
Two pigeons were sent forth in search of land, and found excrements of the earth¬ 
worm; but on going forth the second time, they procured a blade of grass, after 
which, the waters subsided, and the land appeared. They do not believe that their 
ancestors occupied any other lands, but always had their locality in North America. 
They believe that domestic animals were introduced by the whites. They have no 
knowledge of the land being pre-occupied by the whites, or a more civilized people 
than themselves. But they do believe that the land was pre-occupied by a people of 
whom they have no definite knowledge. 


1 1790. Indian Treaties, page 29. 




HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


267 


5. The only name they have for America is, The Land of the Indians. They call 
it the land of the Red people. They have no other oral tradition of any other name 
for America. 

6. In the reminiscences of their former condition they state, that they enjoyed a 
greater degree of peace, before the discovery of the continent by the whites, than they 
did afterwards. They had no treaties, no alliances, or leagues, previous to the dis¬ 
covery. They erected breast-works, of a circular shape, for the protection of their 
families. These mounds had no existence previous to their arrival. 

7. In their names and events as helps to history, they pride themselves most upon 
killing their enemies, and by memorializing these events with their hieroglyphics, 
and decorating themselves. Their greatest source of grief was the death of a son, 
brother, father, or mother. They conquered a people who wended their way south. 
There have been subsequent conquests. They had never been conquered until their 
conflicts with the whites. They have never suffered from wild-beasts, floods, diseases, 
or sudden attacks, from which they had no deliverance. 

8. The present rulers of the nation consist of a first and second chief, who, in 
connection with the town chiefs, administer the affairs of the nation in general 
council. The present principal chief, General Roly McIntosh, is of Scotch descent. 
The second chief, Benjamin Marshall, is of Irish descent: both the friends of the 
white man. The former fought, under General Andrew Jackson, against the hostile 
Indians. The tribe, at present, is in a very prosperous condition, and rapidly increas¬ 
ing. The Creeks first commenced immigrating to their new country, west of the 
Mississippi, in parties, in 1828, from which period until 1837 the principal part of the 
immigration took place. Small bodies of Creeks, however, still continue to arrive in 
their new country up to the present time. The circumstances under which they 
reached their present location were the treaty with the United States, and an unwill¬ 
ingness to fall under the State laws of Georgia and Alabama. This feeling still exists 
among them: they have their doubts about being prepared to take part in deliberate 
assemblies. The south-western tribes occupy different stages in civilization, some 
being nearly wholly civilized, others partially so; and others, again, retaining the 
wandering habits of their forefathers, may, with propriety, be termed hunter tribes. 

9. All the south-western tribes speak different languages; except, perhaps, the Choc¬ 
taws and Chickasaws, and the Creeks and Seminoles, which languages have a strong 
affinity to each other. 1 The different tribes do not understand each other. There is 


1 The question of language will he hereafter examined. 






268 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


no community of interest .among them; for that which promotes the interest of the 
hunters induces the agriculturists to idle away their time, and neglect their farms. 
Nor is there any commercial intercourse, worth speaking of, among them; and, indeed, 
there is but little intercourse of any kind, if we except the traffic in stolen horses. 
Their opinions and customs, in many respects, are different; that which is regarded 
as a virtue by the civilized Indians, is considered as a weakness by the hunters; 
and those actions which are regarded as manly and heroic by the wandering tribes, 
are looked upon as vices when practised among the semi-civilized. There can be no 
system of judiciary established among them in which all these tribes could unite. 

The Muskogees speak six different dialects, viz., Mus-ko-gee, Hitch-i-tee, Nau-chee, 
Eu-chee, Alabama, and Aquas-saw-tee. The Creeks, although speaking these different 
dialects, understand, generally, the received language of the nation, which is the Mus- 
ko-gee or Creek language; and consequently the business with the government requires 
but one interpreter. There are several aged persons who can state their traditions, 
but they are reluctant to do so. 

10. International Rank and Relations. — The rank and relationship which this 
tribe bears to the other tribes, is that of Grandchild to the Delawares and Senecas. 
Their traditions assign them a medium position in the political scale of the tribes. 
Whether this relationship is sanctioned by the tradition of all other tribes is not 
known; but by some it is. Discordant pretensions to original rank and affinities of 
blood have never occurred among the Mus-ko-gees. They have no method by which 
.blood affinities can be settled in cases of difficulties. The kindredship of the tribe is 
denoted by terms taken from the vocabulary of the family ties. The Mus-co-gees 
call the Delawares Grandfather. 

11. The monumental proofs of their intercourse with other tribes, such as alliances, 
leagues, and treaties of friendship, are testified to by wampums, pipes, and belts. 

12. The clans are made up of families ; each clan adopting its own peculiar badge; 
such as Crocodile, Bear, Bird, &c. It is supposed that these badges do denote rank or 
relationship. 

13. Geographical features, within the memory of tradition, are not looked upon as 
a cause of the multiplication of the tribes. The Comanches have an immense country 
over which they range, but it is not known that it contributes to their increase. This 
is also the case with the Osages; but for some years past both these tribes have been 
on the decrease. And this must continue to be the case, so long as their women are 
compelled to undergo the severe corporeal labor which the men exact from them. 
The tribes that are progressing most rapidly are those who are making advances in 



HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


269 


civilization and religion. When the female gains her rightful position as an equal, and 
is no longer looked upon as an inferior, then will we have the true solution of the 
problem in regard to the multiplication of the tribes. This solution is true in regard 
to the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Muskogees. Magnitude and resources 
of territory are not generally conceded as entering in as the cause of the multiplica¬ 
tion of the tribes. Magnitude is generally looked upon as a detriment. Dissensions 
have sometimes driven individuals to other tribes; but there are no instances within 
the recollection of the oldest citizens in which these dissensions have led to the 
formation of new tribes or dialects. 

14. In their traditions of the original rank and movements of the tribe, there is no 
mention of rivers or mountains. The general track of their migrations was from the 
West. 

15. Geography. — Of the shape of the globe and its natural divisions, they have 
no definite idea. They generally entertain the belief, however, that the earth is a 
square figure, and entirely surrounded by water; and by going to the verge of the 
plain, they could step off. 

16. The chief rivers occupied by the tribe are the Arkansas, Verdigris, Canadian, 
North Fork of the Canadian, and Red Fork. The Arkansas is navigable as high as 
the mouth of the Verdigris about one-half of the year; this depends altogether upon 
the state of the season; it is about 1000 miles in length. Grand River is supposed to 
be navigable for about 100 miles, but it has not yet been attempted. The Verdigris 
is obstructed by a fall near the mouth. North Fork is navigable a short distance. 
Red Fork is not generally believed to be navigable; the mouth of it is about seventy- 
five miles above the navigable portion of the Arkansas; the Arkansas is about one- 
quarter of a mile wide; Verdigris and Grand Rivers about one-eighth; the others 
probably about the same. Goods are landed at all the principal points between the 
mouth and Creek Agency on the Arkansas; the Grand and Verdigris Rivers have 
each but one landing near their mouth; the first at Fort Gibson, the latter at the 
Creek Agency. All these are tributaries of the Arkansas. The surface of the 
country, generally, is level; abounding in prairies, with a goodly portion of bottom 
land. There is an abundance of timber; such as oak, cotton-wood, and black-walnut; 
but little cedar, and still less pine. Attention is being directed to the cultivation of 
fruit; the peach, however, is already found in great abundance. 

17. The springs, throughout the nation, are quite numerous, but not large. There 
is a lake on the Verdigris River, about eight miles from its mouth. The outlet is 
supposed to be into the Verdigris. It is fresh water, and about two miles in length, 


270 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION 


and half a mile in breadth. There are no lakes that can be navigated by steamers. 
There are no springs that afford sufficient water-power for practical purposes. 

18. The general surface of the country is level; and also fertile. Sufficiency of 
wood and water. Abounding in meadows and prairies. They raise corn, some 
wheat, potatoes, turnips, &c. There are no natural vegetable productions. 

19. The facilities for grazing are very good. Cattle and stock are easily raised on 
the extensive prairies, and in the bottom lands. The woods afford some spontaneous 
herbage. Wells of water are obtained at moderate depths, where there are no springs. 
There is always a practicable market for the surplus grain and stock at Fort Gibson 
and Fort Smith. 

20. The practice of firing the prairies, has the effect of retarding the growth of 
timber. Prairie lands that were settled years ago, are now surrounded with timber, 
which is accounted for, by the fire being kept off. 

21. There are no waste lands that offer any great obstacle to the construction of 
roads. There are marshy places along the Arkansas that are considered unhealthy; 
in some cases these marshes are formed by the springs, and not by the rivers. 

22. The volcanic tracts are not extensive, and they afford a supply of herbage for 
stock. 

23. The climate is generally of a medium character. The heat is distributed 
very similar to that of the Middle States. The south winds prevail. The streams 
sometimes overflow their banks, which is generally attributable to the melting of the 
snows upon the mountains. Tornadoes have seldom, if ever, occurred. 

24. Salt springs are found on the south side of the Arkansas, above the mouth of 
Grand River. 

25. Coal has been found in abundance along the Arkansas River. Other minerals 
doubtless are to be found in the nation. 

26. Nearly all the wild animals have disappeared, except the wolf and deer. The 
fur trade has had the effect to diminish the value of the country for hunting. 

27. The bones of a mastodon were found in the Arkansas River. 

30. The horse, with other domestic animals, they suppose to have been introduced 
by the whites. 


271 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 

31. They are not expert in drawing maps or charts. I have never seen any 
specimens. 

32. Antiquities.— There are two stones with foot-prints on them, but whether or 
not they are the result of human industry is not known 

47. Astronomy. — Their amount of knowledge on this subject is very limited. 
They believe the earth to be a plane, and that it is stationary, and also that it is 
some animate substance. They believe that below us are a succession of planes, and 
that inhabitants are dwelling upon them. The sun, moon, and some of the stars, 
they believe revolve around the earth; but some of the stars are stationary, and stuck 
upon the sky. They believe the sun is a hot substance; that the moon is inhabited 
by a man and a dog. As to the stars, they know nothing of their nature. They do 
not believe the planets to be other worlds. They say the white people came from the 
water, where they dwelt in ships. 

48. They believe that God, or the Great Spirit, created the universe, and all things 
just as they exist. 

49. They believe the sun to be a large body of heat, and that it revolves around 
the earth. Some believe it is a ball of fire. They do not comprehend the revolution 
of the earth around the sun. They suppose that the sun literally rises and sets. 
They think our present theory an invention of the white man, and that he is not 
sincere, when he says the earth moves around the sun. 

50. They believe the sky to be a material mass of some kind, to which the stars 
are appended. They believe that it is of a half-circular form, but that its truncations 
do not touch the earth. They do not believe the sky to be circumscribed. 

51. They account for eclipses by the big dog swallowing the sun; but they have 
no idea where the big dog comes from. They do not believe that intervening objects 
are the causes of the eclipses. The “ dead-sun ” is accounted for, from the fogs going 
up from the earth; and they suppose that this fog is created by the smoke of fire, 
and sometimes that it arises from the rivers. 

52. They compute the year from the budding of the trees. The year they suppose 
consists of some indefinite number of moons. They have no astronomical knowledge 
of the length of the year. The Creeks generally have no definite knowledge on this 
subject. 

53. They have no definite idea of the length of the summer or winter. 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


272 

54. They have no cycle, or fixed or stated period, at the end of which they believe 
the world will come to a close. But they say it will be destroyed by fire; and when 
this period arrives, the earth will be filled with war; and a body of people will appear 
among the Indians, and they will be destroyed; and then the Great Spirit will destroy 
the earth, to keep others from getting possession of it. They do not believe that the 
Indian priests cause its renewal. 

55. They have no name for the year but the two general divisions, winter and 
summer. They have no week. They consider all days alike. The month and week 
are divisions unknown to them generally. The day is not divided into hours, or any 
other sub-portion of time. 

56. They have but the one general name for all the stars. They are not able to 
particularize. 

57. They have nothing corresponding to the signs of the zodiac. They do not 
attach any importance or influence to the stars. The shooting stars, however, are 
exceptions; which they suppose to be excrements cast upon the earth, and,this they 
mix with their medicine; and which, when thus prepared, they consider very effica¬ 
cious. They do not believe that the moon has any influence upon men, plants, or 
animals. Corn is planted by the particular periods of the moon. There is nothing 
known of the moon influencing the growth of corn. 

58. The Aurora Borealis, they suppose, indicates changes in the weather, and 
always for the worse. The milky-way, they believe to be the paths of the spirits; 
but the spirits of whom, or what, they do not know. They have no theory in regard 
to rain, hail, clouds, &c. They know nothing of meteors. Comets, they believe, 
indicate war, but of their nature they know nothing. The phenomena of falling 
stars they explain by the consideration that the falling body is efficacious in medicinal 
purposes. They cannot account for the rainbow; they believe it indicates fair 
weather. 

59. There are coincidences among them similar to the oriental system of computing 
time. They have an annual “busk,” which formerly embraced a period of eight 
days, but how a period of four days; this time is devoted to thanksgiving and fasting. 
It resembles very much the year of Jubilee among the Hebrews. At the return of 
this festival, all offences are cancelled. This festival commences at the ripening of 
the new crops, at which time a general purgation and cleansing takes place. At 
intervals, singing and dancing are introduced. On the first day of the “ busketau,” 
there is a general feast prepared, from the old crop, to which feast all contribute. 




HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 273 

Attendance is obligatory. Sacred fires are built, upon which four pieces of green oak 
wood are arranged, in positions according to the four cardinal points of the compass. 
Their tales and allegories must be referred to, for information on this and like 
subjects. 

60. They say their paradise, or happy hunting-grounds, is above; but where, they 
have no definite idea. 

61. Arithmetic. The tribe does count by decimals. None of the clans among the 
Creeks are in the habit of counting by fives. They can compute numbers as high as 
millions. Beyond ten, the digits are used in connection with the decimals; and this 
same method is used to any extent. They are carried on with certainty to a million. 

62. Neither the wampum nor any form of sea-shells is used to represent numbers, 
or constitute a standard of exchange. The Creeks never had a currency, nor have 
they now anything of the nature of a currency, aside from the currency of the United 
States. The seawan, peag, or wampum, the Creeks never introduced into their com¬ 
putations, as auxiliaries to their digits and decimals. They do understand Federal 
money. 

63. Previous to about the year 1800, there were no accounts to keep. They are 
now kept similar to those of the people of the United States. All valuable skins, 
muskrats, beavers, and otters, are sold by weight. The buffalo and deer-skins are 
sold by quality. 

64. Signs or pictorial devices are not used to any extent in accounts, or in com¬ 
merce, neither are their pictorial records. 

65. Each perpendicular stroke always did stand for one, and each additional stroke 
marked an additional number. The ages of deceased persons or number of scalps 
taken by them, or w r ar-parties which they have headed, are recorded on their grave- 
posts by this system of strokes. The sign of the cross represents ten. The dot, 
and comma, never stood as a sign for a day, or a moon, or a month, or a year. The 
chronological marks that were and are in present use, are a small number of sticks, 
made, generally, of cane. Another plan, sometimes in use, was to make small holes 
in a board, in which a peg was inserted, to keep the days of the week. 

66. Medicine. —They use herbs and incantations in their general practice. They 
are careful and tender of their sick, as a general thing. There is no perceptible 
difference in their attention to the sick. 

35 


274 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


67. Their doctors and practitioners have no knowledge of anatomy; neither of the 
circulation of the blood; nor of the pathology of diseases. 

68. Treatment of Complaints. —For fevers, they use the red-root; for pleurisy, 
they use sassafras; for consumption, they have no definite treatment. For many 
complaints they have no herbs. The roots and herbs they were accustomed to use in 
the “old nation” they have not yet been able to discover in their new country, west 
of the Mississippi. 

69. The big prairie-weed is used as an emetic, taken as a tea. For cathartics they 
have a number of roots and weeds, prepared as a tea. They dig their herbs and roots 
when needed. 

70. They do not bleed in fevers. The Indian lancet is used in cases of pain. The 
cupping is generally efficacious : and a vacuum is produced by exhausting the air by 
the aid of the mouth. 

71. They have no healing or drawing plasters; bandages and lints are applied in 
many cases. 

72. The success with which they treat gun-shot wounds, cuts, &c., is generally 
attributed to the care of the physician. 

73. The Creeks never amputate. They are skilful in the use of splints. For 
removing the wounded, they use the litter. 

74. They use roots and herbs altogether. They have efficacious remedies for female 
complaints. They do not use, intelligently, metallic medicines. They do not under¬ 
stand the nature of an oxyde. They do not always use their compounds in such a 
manner as to insure efficacy and success. 

75. They have two modes of treating eruptions of the skin: First, the external 
application of a decoction of herbs; and, Secondly, by steaming with the same 
decoction. The cause of their known and general failure to treat small-pox, or 
varioloid, is, First, their limited knowledge of the nature of the disease; and, 
Secondly, their belief that it is contagious prevents their administering for its cure. 
In no cases, whatever, do men assist in parturition. After parturition, they use a 
simple root or weed. For paralysis, their treatment is not, in all cases, successful, 
which is generally by roots or herbs. They use the vapor-bath efficaciously. 

76. Internal Constitution of the Tribe. —The Creek nation is divided into two 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


275 


districts; the Arkansas and the Canadian districts. The officers consist of a principal 
and a second chief, who are chosen by the general council; in addition, each district 
has two principal chiefs, chosen in the same manner as the two principal chiefs of the 
nation. Each district is governed by the same laws. Every hundred persons has a 
right to elect a chief, who represents them in general council. The tribe is divided 
into several clans, viz., The Tiger, Wind, Bear, Wolf, Bird, Fox, Root, Alligator, Deer; 
all denoting strength. The tribe appears, originally, to have been organized on the 
Totemic plan; each clan bearing the name of some bird or animal. 

77. The only utility of the divisions into clans, appears to be, to denote those 
objects in which they take the greatest delight. They are indicative of the original 
families, and also distinguished chiefs of the tribe. Clans are a sign of kindred. 
The devices were not their names. There is pre-eminence given to the clans. The 
clans are not governed by distinct chiefs. (See above.) 

78. The chiefs were not originally hereditary. The descent was in the female 
line. This custom has become extinct. The chiefs are now chosen by the council. 

79. The general council of the Creek Indians consists of a representation from 
the whole tribe, as divided into towns. This council, composed of the chiefs, is vested 
with plenary power, to act for the whole tribe. Their verbal summons or decisions, 
have all the force of a written document; these decisions are announced in general 
council; and also recorded by the clerk. Their authority, (as among the principal 
chiefs,) is often assumed. Their authority is delegated to them, (in many cases,) by 
virtue of their standing and influence. They are at all times open to popular opinion, 
and are the mere exponents of it. The power of the chiefs in council is unlimited. 
Their decisions are absolute. 

80. The principal chiefs are chosen by the general council; and now, are not 
chosen so much for their renowned deeds, as their civil and popular qualifications. 
Their term of office continues during good behavior. The disapproval of the body 
of the people is an effective bar to the exercise of their powers and functions. 

81. The chiefs, in public council, speak the opinions and sentiments of the warriors. 
They consult the priests, old men, and young men composing the tribe, in local 
matters. Sometimes they are subject to be influenced by extraneous opinions. In 
many cases they pursue the interests of the people with shrewdness and intensity. 
In their councils, their decisions are generally determined by the opinions of the 
leading chiefs; their dictum generally influences the mass. The right to sit in 
council, is, nominally, equivalent to giving a vote. The ayes and noes, if counted, 


276 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


would be by the clerk. Casting the vote, however, has not been introduced among 
the Creeks. The opinions of the leading chiefs generally regulate the decisions of 
the council. Powers are sometimes exercised by the chiefs, in advance of public 
opinion; but anything gross or outrageous would be indignantly repelled. 

82. The public or general councils are opened with a good deal of ceremony. 
The principal chiefs first enter and take their seats. The next in order then enter, 
and addressing themselves to the whole body, ask : “ Are you all present, my friends?” 
They then take their seats. The principal chief, rising from his seat, presents 
to the second chief, his tobacco; and this interchange takes place throughout the 
whole asssembly. These interchanges having been gone through with, they next 
speak about their domestic affairs. Then local matters; after which they proceed to 
business. Their business is conducted irregularly, daily, and generally, by the 
position of the sun. The principal chief adjourns the council to the appointed time 
next day. Before the close of their deliberations, the two bodies agree upon a day 
of adjournment. At the appointed time for adjournment, the two bodies come 
together. The second chiefs, rising first, address themselves to the first chiefs, telling 
them “they are going to leave them.” They then feeat themselves, the whole council 
following in regular order, according to their grade. The principal chiefs, then 
rising, say, “We return home.” There is still some respect paid to ancient ceremo¬ 
nies. Regard is paid to the weather in their deliberations. They have two national 
clerks; and one United States, and one national interpreter. All questions are 
considered with more or less deliberation. Decisions are sometimes made upon the 
principle of majorities, and sometimes forced by the opinions of the leading chiefs. 
There are no cases that require absolute unanimity. There may be cases in which 
the voice of a leading chief might be taken as the will of the tribe. 

83. Decisions made by the chiefs in council are carried into effect implicitly. In 
cases of capital punishment, the executioner is selected from a body of men called 
“ the Light Horse.” He uses neither tomahawk, club, nor arrow. The gun is gene¬ 
rally selected as the instrument of execution. If the culprit has no choice of place 
for execution, the executioner may appoint the place, which is generally selected with 
reference to a convenience for burial. In case of the restoration of property, a mes¬ 
senger is sent to the parties. There is, however, no regularity on this subject. 

84. In case of a vacancy by death or otherwise, the office is filled by the selection 
of the General Council. Sometimes the vacancy is filled by the town to which the 
chief belonged, and then brought before the General Council for sanction. In case of 
a vacancy among the leading chiefs, the vacancy is filled by the General Council. The 
chiefs may be deposed from office for gross outrage. The custom of wearing medals is 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


an ancient one, but is gradually growing into disuse. There are but few that wear 
them. The medals received from the United States are valued and preserved, but 
not worn. 

85. The priesthood or physic-makers do not constitute a distinct power in the 
government. They do not sit in the council as a priesthood; and their advice in poli¬ 
tical matters is not resorted to. Sometimes, however, in local matters, their conjura¬ 
tions have influence. The weather, about the time of the distribution of the annuity, 
in some parts of the nation, falls under the scrutiny of the physic-makers. Among 
the Creeks there is no such thing as selling or ceding of lands. “ It is for me, for 
thee, and for all.” Sometimes, however, improvements are disposed of. 

86. The powers of a civil and a war chief are often united in the same person. 
The distinction between war chiefs and civil chiefs is scarcely known. There is a 
limit when a young man may express his opinion; this is at the age of twenty-one. 

87. The matrons have no rights whatever in council. They have no separate seat 
in council. They have no prescriptive right of being heard by an official person, who 
bears the character of a messenger from the women. The widows of distinguished 
chiefs, or those of acknowledged wisdom, are never admitted to sit in council. 

87. There is no definite understanding among the tribes in regard to this matter. 
The Creeks have a right to summon a general council of the tribes. These councils 
may be called for any purpose, and by any of the tribes. A general council of the 
tribes was held at Tallequah, Cherokee Nation, about the year 1843. Nothing of any 
importance was transacted at it. There is at present an effort being made to summon 
a general council of the tribes some time during the next summer. 

89. Formerly the brother of the deceased avenged the murder; if there was no 
brother, then the nearest relative. Among the Creeks, now, however, the murderer 
undergoes a regular trial before some of the leading chiefs of the nation, j\nd is dealt 
with according to their decision. If an Indian should murder a negro, the law is 
satisfied with the value of the negro being paid to the owner. The intervention of 
time and the fleeing of the murderer, generally allay resentment and lead to compro¬ 
mises. After the annual “ busk,” all offences are cancelled. There is no distinction 
made in the estimate of life between the male and female. Debts of licensed traders 
are sometimes brought before the council for adjudication. The chiefs generally have 
a sufficient knowledge of numbers to enable them to act with prudence. A message 
accompanied with wampum is never sent in case of private disputes or controversies 
among the tribes. 


278 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


90. There are no game laws in existence among the Creeks. Families have no 
particular tracts as their exclusive hunting ground. 

91. As to individual boundaries, there are none laid down. National boundaries 
are no barriers to the citizens of one nation settling in the limits of another. The 
hunting-grounds are not parcelled out to families. 

92. Cases of local intrusion do not arise. Injury done to property is redressed by 
law. The forfeiture of life is not often the result of continued intrusion ; and the 
seizure of furs still less. 

93. Each hunting party makes its own regulations for the distribution of the game. 
The person who starts an animal and wounds it, is entitled to the skin. The meat 
is divided according to agreement. Each one bags his own game. In cases of thefts 
from traps, the offenders are punished by law. 

94. The tribes permit each other to hunt on their respective limits. There is 
seldom any difficulty on this subject. 

95. Indian Trade.— What are the principal facts necessary to he known, to regulate 
the Indian trade and commerce, and to preserve peaceful relations on the frontiers ,? 
Commercial intercourse has, in some respects, promoted the general cause of Indian 
civilization. The traffic in furs and skins is reduced to a regular system of barter. 
The difficulties and risks attending it, are the dangers from bugs and worms. The 
general chances of profit and loss depend upon the state of the markets abroad. 
The annuity sent to the Indians by the United States Government, especially that 
part in the shape of goods, does not escape the ordeal of speculation, in the Indian 
Territory. The Indians, in a great many cases, sell their claims to these goods, to 
their own people engaged in trade among them, for about one-half their actual first 
cost. The consequence is, that when the goods arrive, those most in need of them 
have the sad satisfaction of seeing them pass into the hands of their own people 
engaged in speculation among them. The intercourse law forbids white people to 
embark in this speculation. This part of the intercourse law is generally evaded by 
the Indian taking into partnership with him the white man: thus dividing the turkey 
between them, while the poor Indians, for whom these things were intended, must 
content themselves with the buzzard. 

96. The chiefs and hunters are shrewd, cautious, and exact in their dealings; and 
sometimes make their purchases with judgment; and, as a general thing, pay up their 
debts faithfully. Many are sober, moral, and discreet. Many, at the present time, do 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


279 


not entirely rely upon memory in keeping their accounts. They are not aided by 
hieroglyphics of any kind. In keeping their accounts, they confide mostly to the 
honesty of the merchant. They are every year becoming more exact. The fidelity 
of the Creek Indian does not depend upon the hunting. The credits are freely 
renewed, but they are upon the faith of the annuity. 

98. The tariff of exchanges, generally, is sufficient to protect the trader from loss. 
It is generally just and fair. Nothing definite can be stated in regard to limitation — 
bad or lost. 

99. Commerce has, since the discovery of the continent, had the effect to stimulate 
the hunters to increased exertions, and thus to hasten the diminution of the races of 
animals whose furs are caught. 


100. The different races of animals have declined rapidly, since the prosecution of 
the trade. The buffalo and beaver diminish in the highest ratio. Do not know 
which flee first. 

101. The lands, when denuded of furs, are of no great value to the Indians, while 
they remain in the hunter-state. The sale of such hunted lands is not beneficial to 
them, but very detrimental. For, when debarred of their hunting-grounds, they turn 
their attention to agriculture. The sale of them is, then, in the highest degree 
injurious to the Indians, and should not, in cases where it can be avoided, be resorted 
to. The proceeds of the sales are a source of continued feuds among them; as among 
the Cherokees. 

102. Not known. 

103. The failure of the game, upon which many of the roving tribes depend almost 
exclusively for subsistence, will prove one of the most effectual causes to induce them 
to exchange their migratory for the more settled agricultural and mechanic life. It 
is a question, whether the goods furnished by the annuities have contributed to the 
industry, happiness, and comfort of the native Indian. Forty years ago, the Creeks 
were an industrious people; they spun considerable cloth, and also manufactured 
blankets. But now, they are departing from these good old habits of days gone-by, 
and are depending upon the importations of the merchants. Even the “ bustle,” an 
accompaniment of dress in civilized life, may occasionally be met with in the Creek 
nation. 

104. The evil effects of the Indian trade have been, in too many instances, that 
the Indian has imbibed all the vices of the white man, while the good has been left 


280 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


entirely out of view. Forty years ago, the Creeks were moral, sober, and virtuous. 
The traffic in ardent spirits has been a cause of undoubted injury, and, it is to be 
feared, of depopulation among the tribes. The introduction of gunpowder and fire¬ 
arms has contributed greatly to the rapid diminution of the game. Formerly, the 
game was sought after, exclusively, as a means of actual subsistence. Latterly, it is 
sought more for traffic. The introduction of fire-arms can scarcely be said to have 
exerted any decided influence in favor either of peace or war. The roving tribes 
understand very distinctly the deadly power of the rifle; and, whenever compelled to 
oppose the arrow against its dreaded effects, contend beyond rifle-shot; and only hope 
for success by taking some unforeseen advantage, such as during the intervals of 
loading, or a skirmish in the woods, where the trees form a convenient breastwork. 
The principal cause of discord on the frontiers is scarcely attributable to the introduc¬ 
tion of fire-arms and their accompaniments. But, on the other hand, it has arisen 
from the introduction of ardent spirits and the transactions of unprincipled white 
men. Years ago, when the laws in regard to the introduction of ardent spirits were 
very lax, it w r as very little in use, compared with the present consumption. Moral 
sentiment among the Indians themselves, will do more to check the traffic and use of 
it, than the most stringent laws that can possibly be enacted. Industry will make 
them sober and happy. Introduce the mechanic arts, and a happy era will have 
commenced throughout the Indian territory. Introduce the apprenticeship system 
among them, and a benefit will have been conferred upon the Indian that will make 
him industrious and happy. The conclusion in regard to intemperance and the intro¬ 
duction of ardent spirits among the Indians, is this : remedy the evU at home, and there 
will be no cause of complaint among our red brethren. 

105. Problem oe Civilization. —Whatever doubts have existed, heretofore, in regard 
to the satisfactory solution of this question, they must now give way before the cheer¬ 
ing results that have attended the philanthropic efforts that have from time to time 
been made, and are at present going on among the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
and Creeks. These tribes yielded their country east of the Mississippi, rendered dear 
to them by the associations of youth, their traditions, and the graves of their fathers. 
They had learned the great truths of Christianity, and the arts of agriculture and 
civilized life; yet they gave up all, and sought a new home in the far-off wilderness, 
and have made in that wilderness fruitful and rich farms and flourishing villages. 
Some of their schools are of a high order. The gospel ministry is well attended. 
Some of their constitutions are purely republican. The people are increasing in 
numbers. Peace dwells within their limits, and plenteousness within their borders; 
civilization upon Christian principles; agriculture and the mechanic arts; and schools. 
With these primary and fundamental principles of human happiness, civilization 
among them is no longer problematical. 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


281 


106. Legislation of Congress. — The intercourse laws, as they exist, are, in the 
main, very good. The great difficulty is their not being carried into effect by those 
whose duty it is to administer them. It is scarcely practicable that all the difficulties' 
that arise between the tribes can be provided for. 

107. Difficulties and wars arise from local causes in many cases that are unforeseen. 
The negroes that were brought in, under General Jessup’s Proclamation, during the 
Seminole war, threaten difficulty between the Creeks and Seminoles. 

108. The faithful application of these laws would do a great deal to secure more 
effectually the rights or welfare of the Indian. 

109. Any modification of the provisions respecting the payment or distribution of 
annuities that would place them in the hands of the Indians themselves, or prevent 
their annuities being bartered away, would be a charity and good work for the Indians. 
Their treaty funds, if applied to small neighborhood schools, and the introduction of the 
mechanic arts by the apprenticeship system, would do a great deal for their comfort and 
civilization. 

110. Their present location requires the introduction of mills; and the mechanic 
arts that would enable them to live more comfortably. 

111. The non-manufacture of ardent spirits at home would tend most effectually 
to shield the tribes from the introduction of it into their territories, and from the 
pressure of lawless or illicit traffic. 

112. The tribes could be as well treated with in the forest as they could be at the 
seat of government. The expenses on the frontier, for subsistence, are heavy. An 
interview with the Executive Head of Government is beneficial; but Commissioners 
of the right stamp, sent among them, would be better, thus bringing the mass of the 
people into view with the Government. 

113. It is seldom that emigrating bands abide for long periods on their territories. 
We have not heard complaints of such trespasses. 

114. The Cherokees are sufficiently advanced to have their funds paid to a trea¬ 
surer, to be kept by him, and disbursed by him, agreeably to the laws of their local 
legislature. 

115. The payment of annuities, to separate heads of families, is most beneficial. 

36 


282 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION 


Under no circumstances whatever should the principal of an Indian fund be paid t j 
the Indians. Very few are capable of the wise or prudent application of money. 

116. — New Indian Governments west of the Mississippi. — The elective franchise 
is open for all who have reached the age of twenty-one years. Some of the tribes 
have written constitutions, which are decidedly of a republican character. This is 
peculiarly the case with the Cherokees and Choctaws. The Creeks are still without 
any permanent written constitution, but we believe the time is not far distant, when 
they will be prepared to be governed by one. The elections among the Creeks are 
by general council and towns. General officers are elected by the towns. The 
influence which some of the leading chiefs assume, -without being questioned by the 
people, is the only point that wants guarding, to prevent the abuse of the elective 
franchise. There are no property qualifications necessary to the exercise of the 
elective franchise. The young men exercise this right at eighteen years of age. 
There are no rights surrendered as a boon or equivalent for the general security of 
life, liberty, and property. 

117. The practical working of these governments, has been very beneficial. From 
time to time, modifications and changes and new laws are enacted, as the wants of 
the people seem to demand. 

118. — What is the present state, SfC. ? These governments are as prosperous as 
reasonably could be expected, with every prospect of continuing so. Laws for the 
enforcement of public order have been adopted. Offences are tried, debts collected, 
by law. Clanships and sectional divisions are being amalgamated, and many of 
their superstitions are giving way. 

119. — Property. — What ideas have the Indians of Property? They believe 
private rights accrued to them from the Great Spirit. From the earliest times, the 
Indians have professed very correct ideas of private rights . In war, all spoils taken 
from the enemy became the property of the individual captor; and the property 
thus acquired, as well as all other, descended in the female line. They have also 
very correct views of the legal ideas of property. Some believe that rights formerly 
came from war and hunting. Might, it is believed, has sometimes constituted right 
with the Indian. In the incursions of one tribe against another, the weaker retired 
from before the stronger: restitution was never given. They have always recognised 
the right to take every advantage of the enemy in battle. 

120. Right was originally obtained by the first occupancy of the territory: and 
this right was considered valid, unless forfeited in war. They have no clear views 
on the remainder. 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


283 


121. The descent of property is fixed. It is willed as the parents please. But if 
no will has been made, the property reverts to the children. But in case of marriage 
with a widow, with children, her property reverts to her children by her first 
husband. The eldest son is entitled only to an equal portion with the rest. A 
written will is binding. A verbal will, established by two responsible persons, is 
valid also. If there has been no other disposition made of the medal, it goes to the 
eldest son. In former times, all relics were taken possession of by the deceased 
sister’s eldest son. But now they are the subject of legacy as other property. 

122. Obligations, in regard to debt, are considered binding. Time does not 
diminish these obligations among the Creeks. The Indian does not consider ill-luck 
in hunting, as exonerating him from paying his debts. They are not prone to sink 
individuality, after a time, into nationality, and to seek to provide for them in that 
manner. The Creeks are punctual in the payment of their debts. They set a high 
value on real property, exacting for it its real worth, nor do they part with it readily, 
nor for inadequate sums. There have been instances of making more than one 
conveyance of property, but these cases do not often arise now. 


10. MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS. 


When the English landed in Massachusetts, in 1620, there were some twenty tribes 
of Indians in the present area of New England, speaking cognate dialects. They 
were hunters and fishermen, in the lowest state of barbarism, and though they never 
had been, apparently, densely populous, the tribes had then recently suffered much, 
from a general epidemic. In their manners and customs, fo-rest-arts and traditions, 
and in their language, they did not differ in their ethnological type. They made 
use, in their wars, of the balista, which is shown in Plate 15, Figure 2. This antique 
instrument is represented several times, agreeably to Chingwauk’s interpretation, on 
the Dighton Rock. 

The Rev. Cotton Mather, in the quaint language of the times, describes the Massa¬ 
chusetts Indians as follows: — 

“ Know, then, that these doleful creatures are the veriest ruins of mankind which 
are to be found anywhere upon the face of the earth. No such estates are to be 
expected among them as have been the baits which the pretended converters in other 
countries have snapped at. One might see among them what an hard master the 
devil is, to the most devoted of his vassals. These abject creatures live in a country 
full of mines; we have already made entrance upon our iron; and in the very surface 
of the ground among us, there lies copper enough to supply all this world; besides 
other mines hereafter to be exposed. But our shiftless Indians were never owners 
of so much as a knife, till we came among them. Their name for an Englishman 
was a knife-man; stone was used instead of metal for their tools; and for their coins, 
they have only little beads with holes in them to string them upon a bracelet, whereof 
some are white; and of these there go six for a penny. Some are black, or blue; 
and of these, go three for a penny. This wampum, as they call it, is made of the 
shell-fish, which lies upon the sea-coast continually. 

“ They live in a country where we now have all the conveniences of human life. 
But, as for them, their housing is nothing but a few mats tied about poles fastened 
in the earth, where a good fire is their bed-clothes in the coldest seasons. Their 
clothing is but a skin of a beast, covering their hind-parts, their fore-parts having but 
a little apron where nature calls for secrecy. Their diet has not a greater dainty than 
their nokehick, that is, a spoonful of their parched meal, with a spoonful of water, 
which will strengthen them to travel a day together; except we should mention the 
flesh of deers, bears, moose, raccoons, and the like, which they have when they can 

( 284 ) 


























285 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 

catch, them; as also a little fish, which, if they would preserve, ’twas by drying, not 
by salting, for they had not a grain of salt in the world, I think, till we bestowed it 
on them. Their physic is, excepting a few odd specifics, which some of them encoun¬ 
ter certain cases with, nothing hardly, but an hot-house, or a powow. Their hot-house 
is a little cave, about eight feet over, where, after they have terribly heated it, a crew 
of them go sit and sweat and smoke for an hour together, and then immediately run 
into some very cold adjacent brook, without the least mischief to them. ’Tis this way 
they recover themselves from some diseases. But, in most of their dangerous dis¬ 
tempers, ’tis a powow that must be sent for; that is, a priest, who has more 
familiarity with Satan than his neighbors. This conjurer comes and roars, and 
howls, and uses magical ceremonies over the sick man, and will be well paid for it, 
when he has done; if this don’t effect the cure, the man’s time is come, and there’s 
an end. 

“ They live in a country full of the best ship-timber under heaven, but never saw 
a ship till some came from Europe hither; and then they were scared out of their 
wits to see the monster come sailing in, and spitting fire, with a mighty noise, out of 
her floating side. They cross the water in canoes made, sometimes, of trees, which 
they burn and hew till they have hollowed them; and sometimes of barks, which 
they stitch into a light sort of a vessel, to be easily carried over land; if they over-set, 
it is but a little paddling like a dog, and they are soon where they were. 

“ Their way of living is infinitely barbarous; the men are most abominably sloth¬ 
ful, making their poor squaws or wives to plant, and dress, and barn, and beat their 
corn, and build their wigwams for them; which, perhaps, may be the reason of their 
extraordinary ease in child-birth. In the mean time, their chief employment, when 
they ’1 condescend unto any, is that of hunting; wherein they ’1 go out some scores, if 
not hundreds of them, in a company, driving all before them. 

“ They T continue in a place till they have burnt up all the wood thereabouts, and 
then they pluck up stakes to follow the wood which they cannot fetch home unto 
themselves; hence, when they inquire about the English, ‘ Why come they hither ?’ 
they have, themselves, very learnedly determined the case, It was because we wanted 
firing. No arts are understood among them, unless just so far as to maintain their 
brutish conversation, which is little more than is to be found among the very beavers 
upon our streams. 

“ Their division of time is by sleeps, and moons, and winters; and, by lodging 
abroad, they have somewhat observed the motions of the stars; among which it has 
been surprising unto me to find, that they have always called Charles Wain by the 
name of Paukunnawaw, or The Bear, which is the name whereby Europeans also 
have distinguished it. Moreover, they have little, if any, traditions among them 
worthy of our notice ; and reading and writing is altogether unknown to them, though 
there is a rock or two in the country that has unaccountable characters engraved upon 


286 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


it. 1 All the religion they have amounts unto thus much; they believe that there are 
many gods, who made and own the several nations of the world; of which a certain 
great god, in the south-west regions of heaven, bears the greatest figure. They 
believe that every remarkable creature has a peculiar god within it, or about it; there 
is with them a sun-god, or a moon-god, and the like; and they cannot conceive but 
that the fire must be a kind of god, inasmuch as a spark of it will soon produce very 
strange effects. They believe that when any good or ill happens to them, there is the 
favor or the anger of a god expressed in it; and hence, as in a time of calamity they 
keep a dance, or a day of extravagant ridiculous devotions to their god, so in a time 
of prosperity they likewise have a feast, wherein they also make presents one unto 
another. Finally, they believe that their chief god, Kamantowit, made a man and 
woman of a stone; which, upon dislike, he broke to pieces, and made another man 
and woman of a tree, which were the fountains of all mankind; and that we all have 
in us immortal souls, which, if we were godly, shall go to a splendid entertainment 
with Kamantowit, but, otherwise, must wander about in a restless horror for ever. 
But if you say to them anything of a resurrection, they will reply upon you, 1 1 shall 
never believe it!’ And, when they have any weighty undertaking before them, ’tis 
an usual thing for them to have their assemblies, wherein, after the usage of some 
diabolical rites, a devil appears unto them, to inform them and advise them about 
their circumstances; and sometimes there are odd events of their making these appli¬ 
cations to the devil: for instance, ’tis particularly affirmed that the Indians, in their 
wars with us, finding a sore inconvenience by our dogs, which would make a sad 
yelling if, in the night, they scented the approaches of them, they sacrificed a dog to 
the devil; after which no English dog would bark at an Indian for divers months 
ensuing. This was the miserable people which our Eliot propounded unto himself 
the saving of.” (Life of Eliot.) 

Eliot, who has been justly styled the Apostle of the Indians, came from England 
in 1631; and although charged with the duties of a pastor, and taking a promi¬ 
nent part in the ecclesiastical government of the New England churches, he turned 
his attention, at the same time, very strongly to the conversion of the tribes. To 
this end he engaged native teachers, and learned the Indian language. In this he 
made great proficiency, and soon began to preach to them in their vernacular. 
Co-laborers joined him; and by their efforts, native evangelists were raised up, under 
whose labors, superintended by Mr. Eliot, Indian churches were established at various 
points. Fifteen hundred souls were under religious instruction on Martha’s Vineyard 
alone. 

In 1661, Eliot published a translation of the entire Scriptures in their language. 
This work, which evinces vast labor and research, is seen to be a well-characterized 


See the Inscription of the Dighton Rock, under Antiquities. 



HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


287 


dialect of the Algonquin. A vocabulary of it, extracted from this translation, is 
exhibited herewith. Many English terms for nouns and verbs are employed, with 
the usual Indian inflections. The words God and Jehovah, appear as synonyms of 
Manito, the Indian term for Deity. He found, it appears, no term for the verb to 
love , and introduced the word ‘womon’ as an equivalent, adding the ordinary Indian 
suffixes and inflexions, for person, number, and tense. 

This translation of the Bible into the language, constitutes an era in American 
philology. It preceded, it is believed, any missionary effort of equal magnitude, in 
the way of translation, in India or any other part of the world; and it must for ever 
remain as a monument of New England zeal, and active labor in the conversion of 
the native tribes. The term Massachusetts language is applied to the various cognate 
and closely affiliated dialects of the tribes who formerly inhabited it. It constitutes 
a peculiar type of the Algonquin, which was spread widely along the Atlantic, and in 
the West. 

It is interesting to observe the fate of this people, who were the object of so much 
benevolent care, after the passage of an epoch of little less than two centuries. The 
great blow to the permanent success of this work, was struck by the infuriated and 
general war, which broke out under the indomitable sachem called Metacom, better 
known as King Philip, who drew all but the Christian communities and the Mohegans 
into his scheme. Even these were often suspected. The cruelties which were com¬ 
mitted during this war, produced the most bitter hatred and distrust between the 
parties. The whole race of Indians was suspected, and from the painful events of 
this unwise war, on the part of the natives, we must date the suspicious and unkind 
feelings which were so long prevalent, and which yet tincture the American mind. 

In 1849 the legislature of Massachusetts directed inquiries to be made respecting 
them. From the report made on this occasion, there were found to be remnants of 
twelve tribes or local clans, who are living respectively at Chippequddic, Christian- 
town, Gay Head, Fall River, Marshpee, Herring Pond, Hassanamisco, Punkapog, Natic, 
Dudley, Grafton, and Yarmouth. Their number is estimated at 847, only about seven 
or eight of which are of pure blood; the remainder being a mixture of Indian and 
African. A plan for their improvement was exhibited. This plan embraces the 
following features: 1. The enactment of a uniform system of laws, to apply to every 
tribe in the State, in the spirit of modern philanthropy. 2. The merging of all, ex¬ 
cept those at Marshpee, Herring Pond, and Martha’s Vineyard, into one community. 
3. Granting to every one who wishes it, the privileges of citizenship, involving the 
liability to taxation. 4. The appointment of an Indian commissioner for their super¬ 
vision and improvement. 

Hard, indeed, it may seem to the proud spirit of Indian independence, which has 
so long showed itself in the lives of a Pontiac, a Buekanjahela, Tecumseh, Blaekwar- 
rior, and Red Jacket, if the means for their preservation must be deemed dependent, 
as we see in this movement, upon the corruption of their blood ! 


288 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


VOCABULARY. 

1. SUBSTANTIVES. 

Spiritual and Human Existence: Terms of Consanguinity: Names of Parts of the 

Human Frame. 

1. God.Manitoo. Gen. xxiv. 26. 

2. Devil.Mannitoosh. Job i. 7. Chepian. Life of Eliot, p. 97. 

3. Angel.English employed. 

4. Man.Wosketomp. 

5. Woman.Mittomwossis. Gen. xxiv. 8. Job xxi. 9. 

6. Boy.Mukkutchouks. Job iii. 5. 

7. Girl, or maid.Nunksqua. Gen. xvi. 24. Luke viii. 54. Ps. clviii. 12. 

8. Virgin 1 .Penomp. Gen. xxiv. 16. Job xxxiii. 4. Isa. vii. 14. Mat. i. 23. 

9. Infant, or child.Mukkie. Gen. xxv. 22. Job xxxiii. 25. 

10. Father, my.Noosh. Gen. xxii. 7. Luke x. 21. 

11. Mother.Nokas. Song of Sol. iii. 4. 

12. Husband.Munumayenok. Gen. xxx. 15. 

13. Wife.Nunaumonittumwos. Job xxxi. 10. 

14. Son.Nunaumon. Gen. xxiv. 6. 

15. Daughter.Nuttanis. Mat. ix. 22. 

16. Brother.Nemetat. Song of Sol. xiii. 1. 

17. Sister.Nummissis. Netompas. Song of Sol. iv. 9. 

18. An Indian. 

19. A white man. 

20. Head.Uppuhkuk. Mark xiv. 3. Song of Sol. v. 2. 

21. Hair.Meesunk. Lev. xi. 41. Ps. Ixix. 4. Mat. x. 30. 

22. Face.Wuskesuk. Prov. xxvii. 20, xxx. 10. 

23. Scalp.Qanonuhque. Ps. lxviii. 21. 

24. Ear.Mehtauog. Job xxix. 11. Plu. in og. 

25. Eye.Wuskesuk. Job xxviii. 10. 

26. Nose.Mutchan. Job iii. 21. Isa. xxxvii. 29. 

27. Mouth.Uttoon. Job xxix. 9, xxxiii. 2, xl. 4. 

- 28. Tongue.Weenau. Job xli. 1. Prov. x. 20. 

29. Tooth.Weepit. Job xxix. 17. 

30. Beard .Weeshittooun. Lev. xiii. 30. Isa. vii. 20. 

31. Neck.Kussittspuk. Song of Sol. iv. 4. Isa. xlvii. 4. 

32. Arm.Kuppitanit. Song of Sol. vii. 6. 


1 It must be evident, that if there be no equivalent for this word as contradistinguished from No. 7, there 
can be no translation of Mat. i. 18, and the parallel passages of Luke, &c., which will convey to the Indian 
mind the doctrine of the mystery of the incarnation. 

































HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 289 

33. Shoulder...Wuttukeit. Isa. xi. 4, 6. 

34. Back .Uppusq. Isa. 1. 6. Uppusqantoonk. Prov. xxvi. 3. 

35. Hand.Nutcheg. Job ii. 5. 

36. Finger.Muhpuhkukquaitch. Dan. v. 5. 

37. Nail.Wuhkoss. Dan. iv. 33. Wuhkas. Deut. xxi. 12. 

38. Breast..,....Wohpannog. Lev. vii. 30. 

39. Body.Nuhog. Luke xx. 19. Mark xiv. 22. My in N. 

40. Leg.Wuhkont. Song of Sol. v. 15. Plu. in ash. Prov. xxvi. 7. 

41. Navel.Wenwe. Song of Sol. vii. 2. 

42. Thigh.Wehquaosh. Dan. ii. 32. 

43. Knee.Mukkuttog. Job iv. 4. Plu. in og. 

44. Foot.Wuseet. Rev. x. 2. 

45. Toe.Ketuhquasit. Lev. xiv. 25. 

46. Heel.....Wogquan. Jer. xiii. 22. Plu. in ash. Gen. iii. 15, xxv. 26. 

47. Bone .Kon. Job xxx. 30, xxxi. 22. 

48. Heart.Uttah. Job xxxi. 7. Metah. Prov. xxvii. 23. 

49. Liver.Wusquenit. Lev. iii. 4, ix. 19. Wusqun. Prov. vii. 23. 

50. Windpipe. 

51. Stomach.Wunnokus. Job xxx. 27. Song of Sol. v. 14. 

52. Bladder.Wishq. 

53. Blood.Musque. Acts ii. 19. Wusqueheonk. Lev. vii. 26. 

54. Vein.Kutcheht. Isa. 

55. Sinew.Kutcheht. Isa. 

56. Flesh.Weyaus. Gen. xxvii. 3. Job xxiii. 21, 25, xxxiv. 15. 

57. Skin.Natuhquab. Job xxx. 30. My in N. 

58. Seat.Posketteau. Isa. xx. 4. Buttocks. 

59. Ankle. 

WAR, HUNTING, AND TRAVELLING. 

60. Town.Otan. Josh. viii. 8. 

61. House.Wekit. Job i. 13. 

62. Door.Squantam. Job xxx. 9. 

63. Lodge.Wunneepogqukkomukqut. Lev. xxiii. 42. 

64. Chief..Ketassoot. Luke xxiii. 38. Song of Sol. iii. 9, 11. 

65. Warrior.Aummenuhkesuenomoh. Dan. iii. 20. 

66. Friend.Netomp. Luke xi. 5, 6. 

67. Enemy.Matwamo. Psalms lxxiii. 21. Matwoh. Prov. xxvii. 6. 

68. Kettle.Ohkeek. Job xli. 20. 

69. Arrow.Kohquodt. Job xli. 26, 28. Isa. v. 28. I. Sam. xx. 20. 

70. Bow.Ahtompeh. II. Sam. i. 18. 

71. War-club. 

72. Spear.Qunuhtug. Job xli. 26, 29. 

37 







































290 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

73. Axe.Togkuok. I. Kings vi. 7. 

74. Gun. 1 

75. Knife.Quogwosh. Josh. v. 2. 

76. Flint.Qussukquanit. Isa. v. 28. 

77. Boat.Noonskoonun. Acts xvii. 16. 

78. Ship.Kuhtoonagqut. Mark. iv. 36. Acts xx. 38. Prov. xxx. 19. 

79. Sail.Omoquash. Acts xvii. 17. 

80. Mast.Sehoghonganuhtugquot. xxiii. 24. 

81. Oar.Hunkaueehteang. Ezek. xxvii. 6. 

82. Paddle.Wuttuhunk. Deut. xxiii. 13. 


COSTUME AND DECORATIONS. 


83. Shoe .Mukussin. Luke x. 4. 

84. Legging.Metas. Dan. iii. 21. Plu. in ash. 

85. Coat.Hogkooongash. Lev. viii. 7. Mark. vi. 9. 

86. Shirt. 

87. Breechcloth.Ampauish. Isa. xx. 2. 

88. Sash.Uppetukquobpis. Isa. xi. 5. 

89. Head-dress.Wunasohquabesu. II. Kings ix. 30. 

90. Pipe. 

91. Wampum. 

92. Tobacco. 

93. Shot-pouch. 


ASTRONOMICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 


94. Sky.Kesukqut. Rev. iv. 2. 

95. Heaven .Kesukquash. Gen. i. 8, 9. Josh. x. 13. 

96. Sun.Nepauz. Josh. x. 12. 

97. Moon...Nanepauz. Josh. x. 12, 13. 

98. Star.Anogqs. Job xxvi. 5. Gen. i. 16. Plu. in off. 

99. Day .Kesukod. Gen. i. 5. Josh. x. 13. Job i. 13. 

100. Night.Nukon. Gen. i. 5. Tibukod. Isa. xxi. 11. 

101. Light.....Wequai. Gen. i. 3. Habbakuk iii. 4. Isa. v. 20. 

102. Darkness.Pohkenum. Gen. i. 2. Isa. v. 20. Ex. x. 21. 

103. Morning .Metompog. Gen. i. 5. Isa. xiv. 12. 

104. Evening.Wanunkwook. Zeph. ii. 7. Gen. i. 5, 8, 13, 19, 23. 


Here, and in most other cases where a blank occurs, there is no corresponding term to be found in the Bible. 






























HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


291 


105. Mid-day. 

106. Midnight .Nouttipukok. Acts xvi. 25. Ex. xi. 4. 

107. Early.Nomponeu. John xx. 1. 

108. Late.Mannuchish. Isa. xliv. 6. 

109. Spring .Sontippog. Mark xiii. 28. 

110. Summer.Sequane. Prov. xxvi. 1. Nepun. Gen. viii. 22. Prov. vi. 8. 

111. Autumn. 

112. Winter.Popon. Song of Sol. ii. 2. 

118. Year .Kodtumog. I. Sam. xxvii. 7, xxix. 3. Isa. xxix. 1. 

114. Wind.Waban. Isa. xvii. 18. 

115. Lightning .Ukkutshaumun. Ex. xix. 16, xx. 10. Dan. x. 6. 

116. Thunder.Pahtuhquohan. Ex. xix. 16, xx. 18. 

117. Rain.Sokanon. Job xxix. 23. 

118. Snow.Koon. Job xxvi. 1, vi. 16. 

119. Hail.Kussegin. Rev. xi, 19. 

GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS. 

120. Fire.Nootae. Isa. ix. 5. 

121. Water.Nippe. Prov. xxii. 19. 

122. Ice.Kuppad. Job vi. 16. 

123. Earth.Ohke. Job xxxviii. 4. 

124. Sea...Kehtahhanit. Prov. xxx. 19. 

125. Lake .Nepissepag. Luke viii. 23, 33. 

126. River.Sepu. Job xxvii. 10. Seip. Gen. ii. 10. 

127. Spring .Tohkekom. Song of Sol. iv. 12, 15. 

128. Stream. 

129. Valley.Ooneuhkoi. Josh. viii. 11, x. 12. 

130. Hill.Wudcbuemes. Isa. xli. 2. 

131. Mountain.Wudcbue. Job xxxix. 8. 

132. Plain. 

133. Forest.Mebtugquebkontu. xliv. 14. 

134. Meadow.Moquashqut. Gen. xix. 17. 

135. Bog.Neppissipagwasb. Isa. xiv. 23. 

136. Island.Menobbannet. Isa. xli. 1, 2. 

METALS AND THE MINERAL KINGDOM. 

137. Stone.Qussuk. Prov. xxvii. 3. 

138. Rock .Qussuk. 
































292 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

139. Silver. 

140. Copper. 

141. Iron.Missechuag. Prov. xxvii. 17. 

142. Lead....Ma Muttattag. Zach. v. 7, 8. Mahmuttattag. 

143. Gold. 


HORTICULTURE AND AGRICULTURE. 

144. Maize, or corn. 

145. Wheat. 

146. Oats. 

147. Potatoe. 

148. Turnip. 

149. Pea. 

150. Rye. 

151. Bean. 

152. Melon.Monaskootasquash. Lev. xi. 5. 

153. Squash. 

154. Barley. 


BOTANICAL TERMS AND VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 


155. Tree.Mehtug. Job xl. 21, 22, xv. 7. 

156. Log.Uhtukq. 

157. Limb.Wuttuk. Zach. vi. 12. Isa. x. 39. 

158. Wood.Uhtugquae. Song of Sol. iii. 9. 

159. Post.Nepattunkquon. Isa. vi. 4. Post of a door. 

160. Stump.Wequanunk. Dan. iv. 15, 23, 26. 

161. Pine.Qunonuhqua. Isa. xiv. 8. Fir-tree. 

162. Oak.Nootimes. Isa. vi. 13, i. 30, xliv. 14. 

163. Ash.Monunksoh. Isa. xliv. 14. 

164. Elm. 


165. Basswood. 

166. Shrub. 


167. Leaf...'.Oneep. Isa. i. 30. 

168. Bark. 

169. Grass.Moskehtu. Gen. i. Prov. xxii. 25. Ex. vi. 10. 

170. Hay.Moskehtu. Isa. xlii. 4. 

171. Nettle.Koussuk. Isa. v. 6. Brier. 

172. Thistle .Taskookau. 

173. Weed. 

174. Flower .Peshaun. Song of Sol. ii. 12. 

175. Rose.Peshaun. 

176. Lily.Peshaun. Luke xx. 27. Mat. vi. 38. 






















HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


293 


GENERAL ARTICLES OF FOOD. 

177. Bread.Petukquannuk. Job xxxiii. 20. Lev. xxiv. 5. Eccl. xi. 1. 

178. Indian-meal.Nokebick. Eliot’s Life, p. 79, ed. of 1691. 

179. Flour.Nookkik. I. Sain, xxviii. 24. 

180. Meat.Weyaus. Meetsuonk. Job xxxiv. 3. 

181. Fat.Wees. Lev. iii. 3. 

NATIVE QUADRUPEDS. 

182. Beaver. 

183. Deer.Ahtuh. Song of Sol. ii. 9. 

184. Bison, or Buffalo. 

185. Bear.Mosq. Prov. xvii. 12. 

186. Elk. 

187. Moose. 

188. Otter. 

189. Fox.Wonkussiss. Song of Sol. ii. 15. Dim. in ernes. Plu. in og. 

190. Wolf.Mukquooshim. Isa. xlv. 25. Query—plu. in im. 

191. Dog.Anum. I. Sam. ix. 8. 

192. Squirrel. 

193. Hare .Ogkoshku. Prov. xxx. 26. Coney. 

194. Lynx. 

195. Panther. 

196. Muskrat.Mishahpohquas. Isa. lxvi. 17. Mouse. Lev. xi. 29. 

197. Mink. 

198. Fisher. 

199. Martin. 

200. Mole .Mameechomit. Lev. xi. 30. 

201. Polecat. 

DOMESTIC ANIMALS INTRODUCED AT THE DISCOVERY. 1 

202. Hog. 

203. Horse. 

204. Cow. 

205. Sheep. 


Translations of these names are requested. 

















294 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

REPTILA, INSECTS, ETC. 

206. Turtle, or Tortoise.Toonuppas. Lev. xi. 29. Plu. in og. 

207. Toad .Tinnogkooqus. Ex. viii. 2. Plu. in og. 

208. Snake .Askook. Job xxvi. 13. Eccl. x. 2. 

209. Lizard. 

210. Worm .Oohqua. Isa. xiv. 11. Plu. in og. 

211. Insect .Monitos. Plu. in ug. 

212. Ely..Ochaas. 

213. Wasp.Amo. Plu. in og. 

214. Ant.Aununnekqs. Prov. xxx. 25, vi. 6. 

BIRDS, AND ORNITHOLOGY GENERALLY. 

215. Bird.Psukses. Job xli. 5. Prov. xxvii. 8. 

216. Egg.Woou. Job vi. 6. Woan. Isa. x. 14. Deut. xx. 6. 

217. Feather.Unnokon. 

218. Claw.Ookossa. Isa. v. 28. Dan. iv. 23. 

219. Beak. 

220. Wing.Nuppohwun. Isa. vi. 2. 

221. Goose. 

222. Duck. 

223. Swan.Wequash. Lev. xi. 18. 

224. Partridge.Pobpobkussu. I. Sam. xxvi. 20. 

225. Pigeon.Nunneem. Lev. xv. 6. 

226. Plover. 

227. Woodcock. 

228. Turkey. 

229. Crow.Weenont. Lev. xi. 15. 

230. Raven.Konkontu. Job xxxviii. 41. Song of Sol. v. 1. Gen. viii. 7. 

231. Robin. 

232. Eagle.Wompisik. Lev. xi. 13. Isa. xl. 31. 

233. Hawk.Quanon. Lev. xi. 16. 

234. Snipe. 

235. Owl.Kookookbau. Job xxx. 29. Isa. xiii. 21. 

236. Woodpecker. 

FISHES AND OBJECTS IN ICHTHYOLOGY. 

237. Fish .Namohs. Hab. i. 14. Luke xi. 11. Mat. xxxiv. 4. 

238. Trout. 
























HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


295 


239. Bass. 

240. Sturgeon, 

241. Sunfisk. 

242. Pike. 

243. Catfish. 

244. Perch. 

245. Sucker. 

246. Minnow. 


247. Fin.Wapwekaneg. Lev. xi. 10. Plu. in ig. 

248. Scale.Wohhokgieg. Lev. xi. 10. Plu. in ig. 

249. Roe. 


2. ADJECTIVES. 

In the Algonquin group of languages, the adjective is furnished with a transitive inflection, to 
denote the class of the object, of the quality of which it is intended to speak; and these transitive 
forms are the simplest, in which all words denoting the properties and qualities of bodies are orally 
found to exist. In that language, the two classes of objects which impose rules of construction 
upon the speaker, in the use of adjectives, are those possessing and those wanting life or vitality. 
The adjective roots or primitive forms of the adjective, are therefore always incumbered with a 
transitive inflection, to make certain to the hearer the precise class of objects spoken of. Thus, 
waub is the root-form of white. Ish or ishk, is a declarative particle, but if it be intended to 
describe a white person, the particle izzie is added; if a white inanimate substance , the particle is 
changed to au. Denote whether this mode or any analogous one exists in the language of which 
you furnish a vocabulary. 


250. White.Wompi. Mat v. 36. 

251. Black.Mooi. Song of Sol. i. 5. 

252. Red.Musqua. Isa. lxviii. 7. 

253. Green.Ashkoshqui. Song of Sol. v. 16. 

254. Blue.Oonoag. Ex. xxxix. 1, 2. 

255. Yellow .Wesoag. Ps. lxviii. 13. 

256. Great.Missi. Luke x. 2. 

257. Small.Peasi. II. Sam. xii. 8. Hag. i. 9. 

258. Strong .Menuhkesu. II. Sam. iii. 1. John ii. 14. 

259. Weak.Noochumwis. II. Sam. iii. 1. Isa. xvi. 10. 

260. Old.Kutchis. Isa. xx. 4. 

261. Young.Wuske. Rev. v. 9. Lev. xxii. 20. Isa. vii. 21. 

262. Good .Wunnegen. Isa. v. 20. Gen. i. 4. 

263. Bad.Matchet. Isa. v. 20. 

264. Handsome.Noonet. Song of Sol. i. 14. 

265. Ugly. 

266. Alive.Pamotog. Luke xxiv. 5. 

267. Dead .Nuppuk. Luke xxiv. 5. 

268. Life.Pemoantooonk. Isa. xliii. 4. Sub. in onk. 






















296 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

269. Death.Nuppoonk. Prov. vii. 27. Sub. in onk. 

270. Cold.Kussopeu. Rev. iii. 15. 

271. Cold.Sonquesea. Rev. iii. 15. 

272. Sour.Seog. Prov. x. 26. 

273. Sweet.Weekon. Eccl. xi. 7. Isa. v. 20. 

274. Pepper. 

275. Salt. 

276. Bitter.Wesogk. Rev. x. 10. Isa. v. 10. 


In giving these examples, the substantive forms, Nos. 268, 269, and 274, 275, are given in imme¬ 
diate connection with the adjective, for obvious reasons. 


8. PRONOUNS, PERSONAL AND RELATIVE. 


The genius of the Indian language, to which reference has been above made, which requires that 
adjectives should have a transitive inflection, also imposes a similar rule of transition on the pro¬ 
nouns, which are perpetually required to show whether the class of objects to which they apply be 
animate or inanimate. It is the succedaneum for gender; and there is, as a consequence of so 
general a principle having been taken, no concord required in that class of languages, to denote 
the masculine and feminine. State whether the personal, relative, or demonstrative pronouns, be 
transitive or intransitive. 


277. 

I. 



278. 

Thou . 



279. 

He. 

.w. 


280. 

She . 

.w. 


281. 

They. 



282. 

Ye. 



283. 

We, including the person addressed. 


284. 

We, excluding 

“ “ Nenawun. Isa. xvi. 10. 

285. j 

r This person, or animate being. 

1 ’ . 6 Yen oh. Mat. xx . 

10, 11. 

L Ihis object or 

thing (inanimate). 


286. -j 

f That person or animated being. 


1 That object or 

thing (inanimate). 


287. j 

f These persons 

or animated beings. 


1 These objects < 

or things (inanimate). 


288. <j 

i Those persons 

or animated beings. 


[ Those objects 

or things. 


289. 

All. 



290. 

Part. 



291. 

Who. 


viii. 45, 

1 

f What. - 



292. 1 

What person. 




\ What thing. 















HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


297 


j Which person. 
I Which thing. 


4. ADVERBS. 

294. Near.Pasoo. Mark xiii. 28, 29. 

295. Ear off.Noondtit. Isa. xlvi. 13, xlix. 1. 

296. To-day.Keshukuk. II. Kings xxviii. 6. 

29/. To-morrow.Mohtompog. I. Sam. xxxi. 8. Saup. Ex. viii. 10. 

298. Yesterday. 

299. By and by. 

300. Yes .Nux. Mat. xvii. 25. 

301. No.Matta. John. vii. 12. Mat. v. 37. 

302. Perhaps. 

303. Never. 

304. For ever.Mitcheme. Isa. xxvi. 4, xxxiv. 10. Mat. vi, 13. 


5. PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL TERMS. 

305. Above.Waabe. Isa. vi. 2. 

306. Under. 

307. Within. 

308. Without. 

309. Something— n. 


310. Nothing —n .Matteag. Luke xxii. 35. Isa. xl. 17. 

311. On.Ohta. Lev. viii. 30. 

312. In. 

313. By. 

314. Through. 

315. In the sky. 


316. On the tree. 

317. In the house. 

318. By the shore. 

319. Through the water. 

6. VERBS. 

The simplest form of the Indian verb which has been found orally to exist in the languages 
examined, is the third person singular, present tense, of the indicative mood. The infinitive is 
only to be established by dissection. If this rule prevails in the language known to you, the equi¬ 
valents of the verbs to eat, to drink, &c., will be understood to mean, he eats, he drinks, &c., unless 
it be otherwise denoted. 


320. To eat.Meetch. Job xxxi. 8. Mark viii. 2, 8. 

321. To drink...Wuttat. Isa. v. 22. 

322. To laugh.Haha. Eccl. 18, 12, 

38 















298 TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 

323. To cry .Mauoo. Luke viii. 52. Eccl. iii. 4. 

324. To love .Womon. Song of Sol. ii. 9. 

325. To burn.Chikosw. Lev. iv. 12. 

326. To walk.Papaum. Zach. vi. 7. 

327. To run .Kenoos. Zach. ii. 4. 

328. To see.Naush. Rev. vi. 3. 

329. To hear.Noota. Luke viii. 8. Gen. iii. 8. 

330. To speak.Noowa. Zach. ii. 4. 

331. To strike .Nuttogkom. Jer. xxi. 6. 

332. To think.Mehquontam. Isa. xlii. 18. 

333. To wish. 

334. To call.Wehkom. Isa. lv. 5, 6. 

335. To live.Kuppamantam. Isa. xliii. 4. 

336. To go.Monchek. I. Sam. xxix. 10. 

337. To sing .Nukketoo. Isa. v. 1. 

338. To dance.Pumukom. Eccl. iii. 6. 

339. To die...Nuppoo. Gen. xxv. 8. 

340. To tie.Upponam. Ex. xxxix. 31. 

341. To kill .Neshehteam. Eccl. iii. 3. 


342. To embark. 

PARTICIPLES. (1.) 

343. Eating. 

344. Drinking. 

345. Laughing. 

346. Crying. 


SUBSTANTIVE-VERB. (2.) 


347. To be, or to exist. 

348. You are. 

349. He is. 

350. I am that I am.Nen Nuttinnien Nen Nuttinnien. Ex. iii. 14. 

(1.) Analogy and examples denote that there are no elementary participles in the aboriginal 
tongues, but that the sense of the equivalents generally returned, is, he (is) eating (is) drinking, &c. 

(2.) Conjugations are effected in the Indian languages, by tensal inflections of the pronouns and 
verbs. The entire absence of auxiliary verbs in the languages was observed at an early period. 
The Indian who is constantly in the habit of saying, I sick—I well—I glad—I sorry—was naturally 
supposed to speak a language, which, however rich in its inflections and power of description, had 
no word or radical particle to denote abstract existence. Such does not, however, appear to be the 
case in the Algonquin, from a scrutiny of some of the Scripture translations which have been 
received, and a comparison with their vocabularies. But the subject still requires examination. So 





















HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


299 


far as can be judged, the term for abstract existence is of very limited use, and never, in any case, 
appears to he employed to express pa&tion, emotion , suffering, or enjoyment. In this view, the 
forms No. 348, 349, are added. It is apprehended that no precise equivalent for 350 — the test 
phrase proposed by Mr. Duponceau for the verb — can be given. In the Algonquin, however, the 
phrase Ain dow iau Iaun has been rendered literally, I—(the 1 ) body—I am. The whole question 
turning upon the primary meaning of the root-form Iau or Iah . 2 


* As there is no indefinite article in the language, the [inclusive] term here is merely inferential. 

* The almost exact identity of the sound of this word with the Hebrew verb To Be, nin has no t escaped 
notice. 





11. FORMER INDIAN POPULATION OF KENTUCKY. 


It is known that, while the present area of Kentucky was, at the earliest times, 
the theatre of severe Indian conflicts, stratagems, and bloody battles, these efforts of 
fierce contending warriors were made by tribes, who, during all the historical period 
of our information, crossed the Ohio from the West. The fierce Shawnee and wily 
Delaware remained in the country but for short times. They landed at secret points, 
as hunters and warriors, and had no permanent residence within its boundaries. Such 
were the incessant bloody attacks and depredations made by these and their kindred 
tribes, both prior and subsequent to the American revolution. The history of that 
State was, indeed, bathed in blood, and sealed with the deaths of some of the noblest 
and freest of men. 

At an early day, the head of the Kentucky River became a favorite and important 
point of embarkation for Indians moving, in predatory or hunting bands, from the 
South to the North and West. The Shawnees, after their great defeat by the Cher- 
okees, took that route, and this people always considered themselves to have claims to 
these attractive hunting-grounds, where the deer, the elk, buffalo, and bear abounded 
^claims, indeed, whose only foundation was blood and plunder. 

The history of these events is rife with the highest degree of interest, but cannot 
here be entered on. The following letter, from one of the early settlers of the 
country, is given as showing the common tradition, that, while the area of Kentucky 
was perpetually fought for, as a cherished part of the Indian hunting-ground, it was 
not, in fact, permanently occupied by any tribe. The writer’s (Mr. Joseph Ficklin’s) 
attention was but incidentally called to the subject. His letter, which is in answer 
to a copy of our pamphlet of printed inquiries, bears date at Lexington, 31st of 
August, 1847. 

“ I have opened your circular addressed to Dr. Jarvis, agreeably to your request, 
and beg leave to remark that I have myself an acquaintance with the Indian history 
of this State from the year 1781, and that nothing is known here connected with your 
inquiries, save the remains of early settlements too remote to allow of any evidence 
of the character of the population, except that it must have been nearly similar to 
that of the greater portion which once occupied the rest of the States of the Union. 

There is one fact favorable to this State, which belongs to few, if any, of the sister 
States. We have not to answer, to any tribunal, for the crime of driving off the 

( 300 ) 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


301 


Indian tribes, and possessing their lands. There were no Indians located within our 
limits, on our taking possession of this country. A discontented portion of the 
Shawnee tribe, from Virginia, broke off from the nation, which removed to the Scioto 
country, in Ohio, about the year 1730, and formed a town, known by the name of 
Lulbegrud, in what is now Clark County, about 30 miles east of this place. This 
tribe left this country about 1750, and went to East Tennessee, to the Cherokee 
nation. Soon after, they returned to Ohio, and joined the rest of the nation, after 
spending a few years on the Ohio River, giving name to Shawnee-town in the State 
of Illinois, a place of some note at this time. This information is founded on the 
account of the Indians at the first settlement of this State, and since confirmed by 
Black-hoof, a native of Lulbegrud, who visited this country in 1816, and went on the 
spot, describing the water-streams and hills in a manner to satisfy every body that he 
was acquainted with the place. 

“ I claim no credit for this State in escaping the odium of driving off the savages, 
because I hold that no people have any claim to a whole country for a hunting or 
robbing residence, on the score of living, for a brief period, on a small part of it. Our 
right to Northern Mexico, California, and Texas, is preferable to any other nation, for 
the simple reason, that we alone subdue the savages and robbers, and place it under 
a position which was intended by the Creator of the world, as explained to the father 
of our race.” 


12. MENOMONIE AND CHIPPEWA HISTORY. 


BY GEORGE JOHNSTON. 

The Chippewas and Menomonies are known to us by many traditions and incidents 
of deep interest, which will be in due time submitted. 

The originality of the following tradition is of a character which can be viewed 
disjunctively, and commends itself to notice. The Indian is prone to trace important 
events in his history to small, and apparently improbable causes. We have heard of 
no Indian wars of any note, of an ancient date, but those against the Foxes, in which 
the Menomonies figure as one of the chief actors. Their connection with the Algon¬ 
quin family, and their speaking a peculiar dialect of it, lead to the supposition that 
they were, at an ancient period, more closely affiliated. Traditions of this kind, 
however mixed up with improbabilities, may enable us hereafter better to compre¬ 
hend their history. That they fell out with their neighbors, relatives, and friends, 
for a small thing, is an event by no means novel or improbable. — H. R. S. 

TRADITION. 


Long before the white men had set foot upon the Indian soil, or made any discovery 
of this continent, a bloody and most cruel war took place, and the existing present 
warfare between the Sioux and Chippewas, originated at this early period. At the 
mouth of the Menomonie River, there existed an extensive Menomonie town, 
governed by a head chief (name unknown) of great power and influence, who had 
the control of the river at its outlet. There existed also four Chippewa towns upon 
the river, in the interior portions of the country, governed by a chief whose fame and 
renown were well known. This Chippewa chief married the Menomonie chief’s sister. 
The two tribes lived happily together as relatives and allies, until the Chippewa 
chief’s son had attained the age of manhood, and at this period the Menomonie chief 
gave directions that the river should be stopped at its mouth, in order to prevent the 
fish, and particularly the sturgeon, from ascending it. This high-handed measure 
caused a famine among the Chippewas, who inhabited the interior portions of the 
country upon the river. 


(802) 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


303 


The Chippewa chief was informed that his brother-in-law, the Menomonie chief, 
had directed that the river should be barred up at its outlet, in order to prevent the 
fish ascending the river, and thereby causing the existing famine among the Chippewas. 
Upon the information received, the Chippewa chief held a smoking council with his 
tribe, and gave directions to his son to visit forthwith his uncle, the Menomonie chief, 
and request him to throw open the river, in order to allow the fish to ascend, and 
thereby stop the existing famine. In the mean time, the Menomonie chief heard that 
his nephew was preparing to visit him, and the chief immediately gave directions to 
have a small bone taken from the inner part of the moose’s fore-leg, which was made 
pointed and sharpened. The Chippewa youth, in obedience to his father’s commands, 
proceeded on his voyage to visit his uncle, the Menomonie chief, and, upon his 
arriving in the Menomonie town, proceeded to call upon him, and besought him, in a 
respectful manner, to throw open his river to relieve their brethren and starving 
children. “ Very well,” replied the haughty Menomonie chief; “you have come, my 
nephew, to request me to throw open my river, alleging that your people are in a 
starving state. All I can do for you, my nephew, is thisand taking the sharpened 
bone with his right hand, and with his left hand seizing his nephew’s hair upon the 
crown of the head, passed the bone through the skin, between it and the skull, and 
letting go of his hold, the sharpened bone remained crosswise upon the youth’s head. 
“ Now,” said the chief, “ this is what I can do, conformably with your request.” 

The young Chippewa withdrew himself from his uncle’s presence, Avithout making 
any comments upon the reception he had met Avith, and immediately proceeded on his 
way homewards, encamping several nights, and avoiding the different villages, finally 
reached his father’s village, with his head covered, and on entering his father’s lodge, 
he laid himself down without saying a word, or uncovering his head. The heralds 
soon proclaimed this fact throughout the village. On the following morning the young 
man broke silence, and called for his father’s messengers, and ordered them to cut and 
mix a sufficient quantity of tobacco for the whole tribe. When the tobacco was 
prepared, he was informed that it was ready, and he forthwith directed that the elders 
and all the braves and warriors should be sent for, and Avhen all were assembled, the 
young man got up and uncovered his head, and showed to the assembled multitude the 
condition he was in, and the bone still sticking upon the crown of his head, and his 
face and head much inflamed. He related to them the reception he had met with 
from his uncle; and then addressing himself to his father, said to him, “that he must 
not on this occasion say a word of dissuasion, for it would be of no avail. ” He then 
addressed the tribe, and told them that he was shamefully treated, and that they 
must prepare their war-clubs, and be in readiness to start on the folloAving morning. 
The consent was unanimous, the war-party was formed, and on the following morning 
they took their departure. The young man was on this occasion the leader and war- 
chief. On reaching the Menomonie town, strict orders were given to take the 


304 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


principal Menomonie chief alive, and to destroy all who resisted. This order was 
fully obeyed and put in execution, for every living soul in the town met with their 
fate from an exasperated foe: the Menomonie chief excepted, and who had been 
overpowered by many, and now bound with leather thongs, and without hopes of 
escape. The young Chippewa war-leader then ordered young men to catch, on the 
shoals of the barred-up river, small sturgeon of various sizes. One was selected of 
the size of a carp, and the bound Menomonie chief was then accosted by his nephew, 
reminded that he had caused the outlet of the river to be barred up, causing a grievous 
famine among the Indians who inhabited the interior portions of the country, and 
for that outrage, and the penurious love he bore for the sturgeon, so he would be 
permitted to keep and cherish that fish. The young man then gave orders to push 
in the chief’s fundament a small sturgeon of the size above referred to, and he was 
then allowed, when unfettered, to reflect upon his folly and to seek his tribe. The 
barred-up river was thrown open, and soon relief reached the famished Chippewas. 
This was the commencement of a war to be replete with murders and cruelties 
unparalleled in Indian history. 

The Menomonie tribe then passed their wampum belts and war-pipe to the following 
tribes, and formed an alliance with them. Sacs and Foxes were engaged in this 
warfare against the Chippewas, together with the Pottawatamies, Kickapoos, Winna- 
bagoes, Sioux, Opanangoes, Shawnees, Algonquins, Nautowas, and Wabanakees. 
Fortunately the Chippewas had three mighty and valorous warriors, of great power, 
at the Sault Ste. Marie. The principal leader was Nabanois, of the crane totem, the 
principal and great chief at La Pointe, of the tribe of Ah-ah-wai, (whose name is 
unknown at this period,) and the great chief and war-leader of Nipigon, of the tribe 
of the king-fisher, or Kish-kemanisee. The latter chief pushed his warfare east, 
among many tribes, and finally reached the Atlantic coast, in pursuit of his enemies. 
His hieroglyphics have been discovered on one of the islands in Boston Bay ; 1 the 
same also exist on Lake Superior, near the Yellow-Dog River, and also upon the north 
coast, near Gargantwois. This chief pursued his enemies with unrelenting fury, 
during summer and winter, and maintained and kept possession of the Chippewa 
country. One of their great war paths was Tahquahminong and Manistic Rivers, 
and from Chocolate River into the Shoshquonabi, and another from the L’ance Kewy- 
wenon and down the Menomonie River.” 


1 This may possibly be an allusion to the inscription on the Dighton Rock. 




13. NOTICE OF THE MISCOTINS AND ASSIGUNAIGS, TWO 
EXTINCT TRIBES, WHO PRECEDED THE ALGON- 
QUINS IN THE OCCUPANCY OF THE LAKE BASINS. 


Among the traditions which float in the minds of the Algonquin tribes who occupy 
the shores of the upper Lakes, are the names of the two now unknown tribes which 
are mentioned above. Over these they recite triumphs, in a long continued war. 
The residence of the Miscotins is identified with vestiges of human labor and 
residence at several points on the shores of Lakes Huron and Michigan. They are 
represented as having been driven south into the general area of the present States of 
Illinois and Wisconsin. 

What relates to these allusions, may be stated as follows: 

Fishing vessels of the leading maritime nations of Europe, appeared on the banks 
of Newfoundland in the early part of the 16th century. Denis commanded one of 
these, in 1506, and Aubert in 1508. Cartier, who coasted along the rugged and 
barren shores of Newfoundland, the “Heluiland” of the Scandinavians, in 1534, 
having discovered the gulf and river St. Lawrence, ascended the latter, the following 
year, to Lake St. Peters, in one of his ships, whence he proceeded, in boats, to the 
island of Hochelaga , the present site of Montreal. He found a large and populous 
town of Indians at this place, who, it is perceived from his short vocabulary, were of 
the Iroquois stock. These were subsequently found to be the ancient tribe known to 
us as Wyandots, whom the French, as Charlevoix tells us, named Hurons, from the 
wild manner of dressing their hair. The Indians, probably mistaking a generic for 
a specific question, and Cartier a specific for a generic reply, supposed they called the 
country “Canada,” when the word evidently only meant that part of it included in 
the town. These Indians occupied also the eastern and southern shores of the St. 
Lawrence, extending westward to Niagara and south-east to Lake Champlain, and 
were thus in juxtaposition to the other Iroquois Cantons. They were expert canoe- 
men ; they descended the St. Lawrence during the fishing seasons, to the Gulf. In 
the improved map of the North American Coast, published at Amsterdam in 1654, 
the country around Lake Champlain is called “Irocosia,” which denoted the exclusive¬ 
ness of the occupancy of the country east of the St. Lawrence and west of the Sorel, 
by that people at the date of the Dutch settlements. 

39 


( 305 ) 


306 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


On the opposite or north shores of the St. Lawrence the French found a people 
speaking a different language, who were, however, on terms with the Wyandots, and 
whom Colden, following the early French authors, represents as excelling the Iroquois 
in military skill and renown. This northern people traced their origin to the high 
and mountainous tract of lakes and cliffs which stretches from the sources of the 
Utawas river quite to the entrance of the Saguenay, at Tadousac. They are referred 
to by the early French writers as Montagues. They early came to be known, however, 
in popular language, by the terms Algomeequin 1 and its contraction Algonquin. This 
term has never been explained. The inflection win, in that language, gives a substan¬ 
tive form to verbs. 1 2 Agomag and Agomeeg 3 are terms denoting along, on, at, 
shcn'e, agreeably to the position of the speaker, and in this case meant the north shore. 
The plural inflections ag and eeg, giving the term a personal form, impart a meaning 
which may be rendered people of the opposite shores. Thus it was only a descriptive 
term, without denoting nationality. 

The Algonquins extended up the Utawas, and frojn its sources south, west, and 
north, spreading through the entire area of the Upper Lakes. It is not known when 
they first reached these lakes. After their defeat in the St. Lawrence valley, by the 
Iroquois, they abandoned that valley, and joined their kindred west. History finds 
them, early in the 16th century, seated about the shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan, 
and Superior. Their traditions state that they had reached these lakes from the east. 
They were divided into numerous local bands bearing, generally, some local name, but 
differing in scarcely any appreciable degree (except in those minute tribal peculiarities 
known only to themselves) in language, looks, manners, or customs. At the earliest- 
dates remembered in their traditions, the Attawas, or Ottawas, occupied the St. Law¬ 
rence, and afterwards the chain of the Manatouline islands of Lake Huron. This 
lake was early called, and is still known to the Algonquins as, Ottawa Lake. The 
tribe of the Missisagies 4 lived first at the river of that name, on the north shore of 
that lake, between La Cloche and Point Tessalon. We find them, in 1653, on the 
shores of Lake Ontario, between Genesee and Niagara rivers. 5 


1 Are we to understand this phrase as being derived from *106, miquom, or Beaver, Jhnik ? 

2 Thus, neme is the infinitive to dance, JYeme-win , a dance; Ke-ge-do, to speak ; Ke-ge-do-win, a speaker. 

3 The germ-word here, which is sometimes goma and sometimes gome, means water, — it is the element 
denoting sea, great lake, bay, arm of the sea, &c., in compounds. Ag and eg are plural inflections animate, 
and, when thus employed in inanimate nouns, render the subject noble. The grammatical rule, in the 
Algonquin, is, that all nouns ending in a vowel are rendered plural, in the inanimate, by the' letter n, and 
in the animate, by g. 

4 The term consists of an English plural in s added to the Algonquin phrase for a wide-mouthed river. 
There is, therefore, no notice of nationality, a word which must be exclusively sought in the language. Their 
language is pure Algonquin. 

5 Edifiantes. 



HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


80’ 


The Nipercineans, who are deemed the true Algonquins by ancient writers, lived at 
Lake Nepissing; the Odjibwas on the straits of St. Mary’s and on the shores of Lake 
Superior. 

Ottawa and Chippewa tradition represents these tribes at first as coming into hostile 
collision, as a nation, with a people who appear to have been their predecessors in the 
lakes. This collision we first hear of on the inner shores of the island of Portagunasee, 1 
and on the narrow peninsula of Point Detour, Lake Huron, the latter being the western 
cape of the entrance into the straits of St. Mary’s. They fought and defeated them 
at three several places, and drove them west. To this primitive people, who appeared 
to rule in the region about Michillimackinac, they gave the name of Mushkodains, or 
Little Prairie Indians. Chusco, an aged Ottowa of Michillimackinac, invariably used 
the word in its diminutive and plural forms, namely, Mush-ko-dains-ug; that is to say, 
People of the Little Prairie. He spoke of them as the people whom the Algonquins 
drove off, and he invariably referred to them when questioned about ancient bones 
and caves, in the region of Michillimackinac. They had magicians for their leaders. 
Their war-captain escaped, the tradition says, under-ground, in the battle at Point 
Detour. They fled on this occasion up the coast to Michillimackinac, and so, by 
degrees, into Lake Michigan by its eastern shores, whence their traditions follow them 
as far south as the Washtenong, called Grand River by the French. These Mushko¬ 
dains they represent as powerful and subtle, and excelling themselves in arts and 
necromancy. 2 They deposited the human bones, he said, found in caves at Michilli¬ 
mackinac. They are the authors of the trenches filled with human bones on 
Menissing or Round Island, in Lake Huron. The Ottawas attribute to them the 
small mounds and the old garden-beds in Grand River Valley, and at other places, and, 
in short, they point to them for whatever in the antiquities of the country they cannot 
explain or account for. Who these Little Prairie, or Fire Indians were, is uncertain. 
Are we not to regard them as the lost Mascotins of the early French writers? Were 
they not cotemporary in the Lakes, with the Assigunaigs, or Bone Indians, spoken of 
by the western and Lake tribes ? 

No reasonable doubt can exist on this subject. They are names ever in the 
foreground of Algonquin history, and these people appear to have fought for the 
possession of the Lake country. By them the ancient ossuaries were probably 
constructed; and we have considered the facts in vain if they were not the nations 
wfio worked the ancient copper-mines on Lake Superior. They appear to have passed 
south by the present sites of Grand River and Chicago. 

The similarity of' the ground form of the names for “prairie” and fire may have 


1 Latterly known as Drummond Island. 

2 My informer was a jossakeed, and laid much stress on the superiority which the art of necromancy 
imparted. 



308 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


led to confusion in the minds of writers. Mushcoosi is grass or herbage in general. 
Ishkoda means fire. The only difference in the root form is that between Ushko and 
Ishko. 

Algonquin tradition, as given by the Ottowa chief, Ke-wa-goosh-kum, in 1821, 
represents the separation of the Chippewas, Ottawas, and Potawatomies to have 
taken place in the vicinity of Michillimackinac. Chusco, the jossakeed, who died in 
1838, makes the Ottawas, with a very pardonable vanity, to have been the most 
valiant tribe in the war against the Prairians or Muskoda men. Ishqua-gonabi, chief 
of the Chippewas on Grand Traverse Bay, and a man knowing traditions, denotes the 
war against muskoda men or dwellers on Little Prairie or Plains, to have been carried 
on by the Chippewas and Ottawas, and in this manner he accounts for the fact that 
villages of Chippewas and Ottawas alternate at this day on the eastern shores of Lake 
Michigan. 1 Ossigunac, an Ottawa chief of note of Penetauguishine, says that the 
Ottawas went at first to live among the men called the Potawatomies, about the 
southern shores or head of Lake Michigan; but the latter used bad medicine, and 
when complained of for their necromancy, they told the Ottawas they might go back 
towards the north if they did not like them. 2 They had made a fire for themselves. 3 
This is the sum of what I have been able to glean about the predecessors of the 
Algonquins of the Lakes. 


1 Travels in the central portions of the Mississippi Valley. 

2 MSS. Journal of Notes and Researches at Michillimackinac and Detroit, between the years 1833 and 1838. 

3 The word Potawatomies means makers of fire,—a symbolic phrase, by which is meant, they who assume 
separate sovereignty by building a council-fire for themselves. 



14. ORIGIN, HISTORY, AND CONDITION OF THE 

CHICKASAWS. 


The following tradition respecting the origin and history of this branch of the 
Appalachian family, is transmitted by their agent from the present location of the 
tribe, west of the Mississippi River. It has been obtained from the most authentic 
sources. The allegory of the dog and pole probably reveals the faith of this people 
in an ancient prophet, or seer, under whose guidance they migrated. The story of 
their old men, as it is now told, runs thus: 

By tradition, they say they came from the West; a part of their tribe remained in 
the West. When about to start eastward, they were provided with a large dog as a 
guard, and a pole as guide; the dog would give them notice whenever an enemy was 
near at hand, and thus enable them to make their arrangements to receive them. The 
pole they would plant in the ground every night, and the next morning they would 
look at it, and go in the direction it leaned. They continued their journey in this 
way until they crossed the great Mississippi River; and, on the waters of the Ala¬ 
bama River, arrived in the country about where Huntsville, Alabama, now is: there 
the pole was unsettled for several days; but, finally, it settled, and pointed in a south¬ 
west direction. They then started on that course, planting the pole every night, 
until they got to what is called the Chickasaw Old Fields, where the pole stood per¬ 
fectly erect. All then came to the conclusion that that was the Promised Land, and 
there they accordingly remained until they emigrated west of the State of Arkansas, 
in the years 1837 and ’38. 

While the pole was in an unsettled situation, a part of their tribe moved on East, 
and got with the Creek Indians, but so soon as the majority of the tribe settled at the 
Old Fields, they sent for the party that had gone on East, who answered that 
they were very tired, and would rest where they were a while. This clan was called 
Cush-eh-tah. They have never joined the parent tribe, but they always remained as 
friends until they had intercourse with the whites: then they became a separate 
nation. 

The great dog was lost in the Mississippi, and they always believed that the dog 
had got into a large sink-hole, and there remained; the Chickasaws said they could 

hear the dog howl just before the evening came. Whenever any of their warriors get 

(309) 


310 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, 


scalps, they give them to the hoys to go and throw them into the sink where the dog 
was. After throwing the scalps, the boys would run off in great fright, and if one 
should fall, in running off, the Chickasaws were certain he would be killed or taken 
prisoner by their -enemies. Some of the half-breeds, and nearly all of the full-bloods, 
now believe it. 

In travelling from the west to the east, they have no recollection of crossing any 
large water-course except the Mississippi River. When they were travelling from the 
West to the Promised Land in the East, they had enemies on all sides, and had to 
fight their way through, but they cannot give the names of the people they fought 
with while travelling. 

They were informed, when they left the West, that they might look for whites; 
that they would come from the East; and they were to be on their guard, and to 
avoid the whites, lest they should bring all manner of vice among them. 

They say that they believe in a Great Spirit, that they were created by him, but 
they do not believe in any punishment after death; they believe that the spirit will 
leave the body as soon as they die, and that it will assume the shape of the body, 
and move about among the Chickasaws in great joy. When one of the Chickasaws 
dies, they put the finest clothing they have on him; also all their jewelry, beads, &c.: 
this, they say, is to make a good appearance so soon as they die. The sick are 
frequently dressed before they die. They believe that the spirits of all the Chicka¬ 
saws will go back to Mississippi, and join the spirits of those that have died there : 
and then all the spirits will return to the west before the world is destroyed by fire. 
They say that the world was once destroyed by water; that the water covered all the 
earth; that some made rafts to save themselves; but something like large white 
beavers would cut the strings off the raft and drown them. They say that one 
family was saved, and two of all kinds of animals. They say when, (or before,) the 
world will be destroyed by fire, it will rain down blood and oil. 

When they are sick, they send for a doctor, (they have several among them,) after 
looking at the sick a-while, the family leave him and the sick alone. He then 
commences singing and shaking a gourd over the patient. This is done, not to cure, 
but to find out what is the matter or disease: as the doctor sings several songs, he 
watches closely the patient, and finds out which song pleased: then he determines 
what the disease is: he then uses herbs, roots, steaming, and conjuring: the doctor 
frequently recommends to have a large feast: (which they call Tonsh-pa-shoo-phah ;) 
if the Indian is tolerably well off, and is sick for two or three weeks, they may have 
two or three Tonsh-pa-shoo-phahs. They eat, dance, and sing at a great rate, at these 
feasts; the doctors say that it raises the spirits of the sick, and weakens the evil 
spirit. Their traditions say that the white people are the favorites of the Great 
Spirit, that he taught them to communicate with each other without talking; that no 
matter how far they are apart, they can make each other understand; that he also 


HISTORY, AND GOVERNMENT. 


311 


taught the whites how to live without hunting; and he instructed them to make 
each thing they want: but he only taught the Indians how to hunt; and that they 
had to get their living by hunting or perish : and the white people have no right to 
hunt. They say they got the first com just after the flood; that a raven flew over 
them and dropped a part of an ear of corn, and they were told to plant it by the 
Great Spirit, and it grew up; that they worked in the soil around it with their fingers. 
They never had any kind of metallic tools; that when they wanted logs or poles a 
certain length, they had to burn them; that they made heads for their arrows out of 
a white kind of flint-rock. They say that it has not been more than a hundred years 
since they saw cattle, horses, and hogs. 

After their settlement in Mississippi, they had several wars, all defensive; they 
fought with the Choctaws, and came off victorious: with the Creeks, and killed 
several hundred of them, and drove them off; they fought the Cherokees, Kickapoos, 
Osages, and several other tribes of Indians; all of whom they whipped. 

A large number of French landed once at the Chickasaw Bluff, where Memphis 
(Tennessee) is now, and made an attack on the Chickasaws, and were driven off with 
great loss. At one time a large body of Creeks came to the Chickasaw country to 
kill them all off, and take their country. The Chickasaws knew of their approach, 
and built a fort, assisted by Captain David Smith and forty-five Tennesseans. The 
Creeks came, and but few returned to the Creek Nation to tell the sad tale. 

The government of the Chickasaws, until they moved to the west of the Mississippi, 
had a king, whom they called Minko, and there is a clan or family by that name, that 
the king is taken from. The king is hereditary through the female side. They then 
had chiefs out of different families or clans. 

The highest clan next to Minko is the Sho-wa. The next chief to the king is out 
of their clan. The next is Go-ish-to , second chief out of this clan. The next is 
Oush-peh-ne. The next is Min-ne ; and the lowest clan is called Hus-co-na. Runners 
and waiters are taken from this family. When the chiefs thought it necessary to hold 
a council, they -went to the king, and requested him to call a council. He would then 
send one of his runners out to inform the people that a council would be held at such 
a time and place. When they convened, the king would take his seat. The runners 
then placed each chief in his proper place. All the talking and business was done by 
the chiefs. If they passed a law, they informed the king of it. If he consented to it, 
it was a law; if he refused, the chiefs could make it a law if every chief was in favor 
of it. If one chief refused to give his consent, the law was lost. 

The large mounds that are in Mississippi, the Indians have no idea of; they do not 
know whether they are natural or artificial. They were there when they first got to 
the country. They are called by the Chickasaws, navels. They thought that the 
Mississippi was the centre of the earth, and those mounds were as the navel of a man 
in the centre of his body. 


312 


TRIBAL ORGANIZATION, ETC. 


So far the tradition. Their present state is this. In their agreement with the 
Choctaws west of the Mississippi, when they purchased an interest in the country, 
they agreed to come under the present Choctaw laws, which are a republican form of 
government. They elect a chief every four years; captains, every two years. The 
judges are elected by the general council. The Choctaws have nothing to do with 
the money affairs of the Chickasaws, nor the Chickasaws with those of the Choctaws. 
All appropriations made for any purpose by the Chickasaws, are made by the chiefs 
and captains in a council. Under the new government, they have improved more in 
the last five years, than they had done for the previous twenty years. 

They have now under-way a large manual-labor academy, and have passed an act 
to establish two more, one male and the other female. 

The Chickasaw district, (the country that all the Chickasaws should live in,) is 
well adapted to all their wants, and is large enough for two such tribes. It lies north 
of Red River. It is about 225 miles in length, and 150 miles in breadth. All of the 
False Washita River is in their district; a part of Blue Boggy, and Canadian Rivers, 
are in it also. 

The funds of the Chickasaws, in the hands of the Government, for lands ceded to 
the United States, are ample for the purposes of educating every member of the 
tribe, and of making the most liberal provision for their advancement in agriculture 
and the arts. Possessing the fee of a fertile and well-watered territorial area of 
33,750 square miles, over which they are guaranteed in the sovereignty, with an 
enlightened chieftaincy, a practical representative and elective system, and a people 
recognising the value of labor, it would be difficult to imagine a condition of things 
more favorable, to their rapid progress in all the elements of civilization, self-government, 
and permanent prosperity. 


VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND CHA¬ 
RACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


40 


(313) 






VI. INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND CHARACTER 
OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


A. Mythology and Oral Traditions. 

B. Indian Pictography. 

Of tlie topics which may be employed to denote the mental character and capacities 
of the aborigines, the principles of their languages — the style of their oratory—the 
oral imaginative lodge lore which they possess — and their mode of communicating- 
ideas by the use of symbolic and representative devices, are the most prominent. The 
two latter have been selected on the present occasion. One reason for this choice is 
the little information we have heretofore had on the subjects. From a very early 
age, the Indian of North America has been observed to be a man possessing a flexible 
and imaginative mythology; to be prone to indulge in theories of cosmogony, in which 
the want of a true knowledge of the Deity, and a history of much pretensions to 
consistency, has often been ingeniously supplied by oral relations of the acts of spiritual 
beings, which constitute a new species of literary machinery, and who supply an 
outlet for the exhibition of wild poetic feelings, and fantastic theories of the acts and 
doings of spirits, giants, dwarfs, monsters and men. Another very striking mode of 
setting forth these beliefs, and exhibiting this miraculous agency, exists in the reflex 
influence of the curious devices which they have, from the discovery, been found to 
draw, in a rude way, on scrolls of bark, trees, rocks, and various substances, and 
which they denominate Ke-ke-win. Both the tales and the drawings illustrate their 
modes of thought on life, death, and a future state, and are eminently characteristic 
traits. 


A. ABORIGINAL MYTHOLOGY AND ORAL TRADITIONS. 


1. Iroquois Cosmogony. 

2. Allegorical Traditions of the Origin of Men ;—of the God Manabozho;—and of the 

introduction of Medical Magic. 

3. Allegory of the Origin and History of the Osages. 

4. Potawatomie Theology. 

5. The Island of the Blessed, or the Hunter’s Dream. 

6. The fate of the Red-Headed Magician. 

7. The Magic Circle in the Prairie. 

8. The History of the Little Orphan who wears the White Feather. 

In directing attention to the intellectual character, capacities, and idiosyncrasies of 
the aboriginal race — a subject respecting which they have been perhaps severely 
judged, some few traits of their mythology, and an extended examination of their 
peculiar mode of symbolic writing, or pictography, are introduced. 

It is known that the Indian allegory presents an attractive field of fictitious inquiry. 
Their oral traditions of gods and monsters, spirits and genii, make a prominent 
display in the winter arcanum of the wigwam. Some of their allegories are beauti¬ 
fully sustained. And where, as in their miscellaneous legends and traditions, there is 
much that is incongruous and ridiculous, there is still evidence of no little variety of 
intellectual invention. 


1. Iroquois Cosmogony. 

The tribes who compose this group of the aborigines, concur in locating the 
beginning of creative power in the upper regions of space. Neo, or the Great Spirit 
of Life, is placed there. Atahocan is the master of heaven. Tarenyawagon, who is 
thought to be the same as Michabou, Chiabo, Manabozho, and tlie Great Hare, is 
called the keeper of the Heavens. Agreskoe 1 is the god of war. Atahentsic is the 
woman of heaven. The beginning of the creation, or of man, is connected with her 
history. One of the six of the original number of created men of heaven, was 
enamoured of her immediately after seeing her. Atahocan, having discovered this 

1 Charlevoix sees a Greek root, as the origin of the word Agreskoe. 

(316) 






317 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY, ETC. 

amour, cast her out headlong to the earth. She was received below on the back of a 
great turtle lying on the waters, and was there delivered of twins. One of them was 
Inigorio, or the Good Mind j the other Anti-inigorio, or the Bad Mind. The good and 
the evil principles were thus introduced into the world. Both were equally active, but 
the latter perpetually employed himself in counteracting the acts of the former. 

The tortoise expanded more and more, and finally became the earth. Atahentsic 
afterwards had a daughter, who bore two sons, Yos-ke-ka and Tho-it-sa-ron. Yos- 
ke-ka in the end killed his brother, and afterwards, Atahentsic, his grand-mother, 
resigned the government of the world to him. 

The Iroquois affirm that Atahentsic is the same as the moon, and Yos-ke-ka, the 
same as the sun. 

These things are elements of the earliest and best authenticated relations. They 
appear to denote a mixture of some of the dogmas of Zoroaster, as the ancient sun- 
worship, with the idolatry, perhaps, of the ‘‘ Queen of Heaven.” 

2. Allegorical Traditions op the Origin of Men — op Mana¬ 
bozho, AND OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RELIGIOUS MYSTERIES 

of the Medical Magic. 

At a certain time, a great Manito came on earth, and took a wife of men. She 
had four sons at a birth, and died in ushering them into the world. The first was 
Manabozho, who is the friend of the human race. The second Chibiabos, who has 
the care of the dead, and presides over the country of souls. The third Wabasso, 
who, as soon as he saw light, fled to the North, where he was changed into a white 
rabbit, and, under that form, is considered as a great spirit. The fourth was Cho- 
kanipok, or the man of flint, or the fire-stone. 

The first thing Manabozho did, when he grew up, was to go to war against Cho- 
kanipok, whom he accused of bis mother’s death. The contests between them were 
frightful and long continued, and wherever they had a combat the face of nature still 
shows signs of it. Fragments were cut from his flesh, which were transformed into 
stones, and he finally destroyed Chokanipok by tearing out his entrails, which were 
changed into vines. All the flint-stones which are scattered over the earth were 
produced in this way, and they supplied men with the principle of fire. 

Manabozho was the author of arts and improvements. He taught men how to 
make agakwuts, 1 lances, and arrow-points, and all implements of bone and stone, and 
also how to make snares, and traps, and nets, to take animals, and birds, and fishes. 
He and his brother Chibiabas lived retired, arid were very intimate, planning things 
for the good of men, and were of superior and surpassing powers of mind and body. 

The Manitos who live in the air, the earth, and the water, became jealous of their 


Axes. 




318 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


great power, and conspired against them. Manabozho had warned his brother against 
their machinations, and cautioned him not to separate himself from his side; but one 
day Chibiabos ventured alone on one of the Great Lakes. It was winter, and the 
whole surface was covered with ice. As soon as he had reached the centre the mali¬ 
cious Manitos broke the ice, and plunged him to the bottom, where they hid his body. 

Manabozho wailed along the shores. He waged a war against all the Manitos, and 
precipitated numbers of them to the deepest abyss. He called on the dead body of 
his brother. He put the whole country in dread by his lamentations. He then 
besmeared his face with black, and sat down six years to lament, uttering the name 
of Chibiabos. The Manitos consulted what to do to appease his melancholy and his 
wrath. The oldest and wisest of them, who had had no hand in the death of 
Chibiabos, offered to undertake the task of reconciliation. They built a sacred lodge 
close to that of Manabozho, and prepared a sumptuous feast. They procured the most 
delicious tobacco, and filled a pipe. They then assembled in order, one behind the 
other, and each carrying under his arm a sack formed of the skin of some favorite 
animal, as a beaver, an otter, or a lynx, and filled with precious and curious medicines, 
culled from all plants. These they exhibited, and invited him to the feast with 
pleasing words and ceremonies. He immediately raised his head, uncovered it, and 
washed off his mourning colors and besmearments, and then followed them. When 
they had reached the lodge, they offered him a cup of liquor prepared from the choicest 
medicines, as, at once, a propitiation, and an initiative rite. He drank it at a single 
draught. He found his melancholy departed, and felt the most inspiring effects. 
They then commenced their dances and songs, united with various ceremonies. Some 
shook their bags at him as a token of skill. Some exhibited the skins of birds filled 
with smaller birds, which, by some art, would hop out of the throat of the bag. 
Others showed curious tricks with their drums. All danced, all sang, all acted with 
the utmost gravity, and earnestness of gestures; but with exactness of time, motion, 
and voice. Manabozho was cured; he ate, danced, sung, and smoked the sacred pipe. 
In this manner the mysteries of the Grand Medicine Dance were introduced. 

The before recreant Manitoes now all united their powers, to bring Chibiabos to 
life. They did so, and brought him to life, but it was forbidden him to enter the 
lodge. They gave him, through a chink, a burning coal, and told him to go and 
preside over the country of souls, and reign over the land of the dead. They bid him 
with the coal to kindle a fire for his aunts and uncles, a term by which is meant all 
men who should die thereafter, and make them happy, and let it be an everlast¬ 
ing fire. 

Manabozho went to the Great Spirit after these things. He then descended to the 
earth, and confirmed the mysteries of the medicine-dance, and supplied all whom he 
initiated with medicines for the cure of all diseases. It is to him that we owe the 
growth of all the medical roots, and antidotes to every disease and poison. He com- 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


319 


mils the growth of these to Misukumigakwa, or the mother of the earth, to whom 
he makes offerings. 

Manabozho traverses the whole earth. He is the friend of man. He killed the 
ancient monsters whose bones we now see under the earth; and cleared the streams 
and forests of many obstructions which the Bad Spirit had put there, to fit them for 
our residence. He has placed four good Spirits at the four cardinal points, to which 
we point in our ceremonies. The Spirit at the North gives snow and ice, to enable 
men to pursue game and fish. The Spirit of the South gives melons, maize, and 
tobacco. The Spirit of the West gives rain, and the Spirit of the East, light; and he 
commands the sun to make his daily walks around the earth. Thunder is the voice 
of these Spirits, to whom we offer the smoke of sa-mau (tobacco). 

Manabozho, it is believed, yet lives on an immense flake of ice in the Arctic Ocean. 
We fear the white race will some day discover his retreat, and drive him off. Then 
the end of the world is at hand, for as soon as he puts his foot on the earth again, it 
will take fire, and every living creature perish in the flames. 


3. Allegory of the Origin and History of the Osages. 

The following tradition is taken from the official records of the St. Louis Superin¬ 
tendency. 

The Osages believe that the first man of their nation came out of a shell, and that 
this man, when walking on earth, met with the Great Spirit, who asked him where 
he resided, and what he eat. The Osage answered, that he had no place of residence, 
and that he eat nothing. The Great Spirit gave him a bow and arrows, and told him 
to go a-hunting. So soon as the Great Spirit left him, he killed a deer. The Great 
Spirit gave him fire, and told him to cook his meat, and to eat. He also told him to 
take the skin and cover himself with it, and also the skins of other animals that he 
would kill. 

One day, as the Osage was hunting, he came to a small river to drink. He saw in 
the river a beaver hut, on which was sitting the chief of the family. He asked the 
Osage what he was looking for, so near his lodge. The Osage answered that, being 
thirsty, he was forced to come and drink at that place. The beaver then asked him 
who he was, and from whence he came. The Osage answered, that he had come from 
hunting, and that he had no place of residence. “ Well, then,” said the beaver, “you 
appear to be a reasonable man. I wish you to come and live with me. I have a 
large family, consisting of many daughters, and if any of them should be agreeable to 
you, you may marry.” The Osage accepted the offer, and, sometime after, married 
one of the beaver’s daughters, with whom he had many children. Those children 
have formed the Osage people. This marriage of the Osage with the beaver, has been 


320 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


the cause that the Osages do not kill the beaver. They always supposed that by 
killing the beaver, they were killing the Osages. 


4. Pottawatomie Theology. 

It is believed by the Pottawatomies, that there are two Great Spirits, who govern the 
world. One is called Kitchemonedo, or the Great Spirit, the other Matchemonedo, or 
the Evil Spirit. The first is good and beneficent; the other wicked. Some believe 
that they are equally powerful, and they offer them homage and adoration through 
fear. Others doubt which of the two is most powerful, and endeavor to propitiate 
both. The greater part, however, believe as I, Podajokeed do, that Kitchemonedo is 
the true Great Spirit, who made the world, and called all things into being; and that 
Matchemonedo ought to be despised. 

When Kitchemonedo first made the world, he filled it with a class of beings who 
only looked like men, but they were perverse, ungrateful, wicked dogs, who never 
raised their eyes from the ground to thank him for anything. Seeing this, the 
Great Spirit plunged them, with the world itself, into a great lake, and drowned 
them. He then withdrew it from the water, and made a single man, a very handsome 
young man, who, as he was lonesome, appeared sad. Kitchemonedo took pity on 
him, and sent him a sister to cheer him in his loneliness. 

After many years the young man had a dream which he told to his sister. Five 
young men, •said he, will come to your lodge door this night, to visit you. The Great 
Spirit forbids you to answer or even look up and smile at the first four ; but when the 
fifth comes, you may speak and laugh and show that you are pleased. She acted 
accordingly. The first of the five strangers that called was Usama, or tobacco, and 
having been repulsed he fell down and died; the second, Wapako, or a pumpkin, 
shared the same fate; the third, Eshkossimin, or melon, and the fourth, Kokees, or 
the bean, met the same fate. But when Tamin, or Montamin, which is maize , presented 
himself, she opened the skin tapestry door of her lodge, and laughed very heartily, and 
gave him a friendly reception. They were immediately married, and from this union 
the Indians sprung. Tamin forthwith buried the four unsuccessful suitors, and from 
their graves there grew tobacco, melons of all sorts, and beans; and in this manner 
the Great Spirit provided that the race which he had made, should have something to 
offer him as a gift in their feasts and ceremonies, and also something to put into their 
akeeks or kettles, along with their meat. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


321 


5. 1 he Island of the Blessed; or the Hunter’s Dream. 

There was once a beautiful girl, who died suddenly on the day she was to have 
been married to a handsome young hunter. He had also proved his bravery in war, 
so that he enjoyed the praises of his tribe, but his heart was not proof against this 
loss. From the hour she was buried, there was no more joy or peace for him. He 
went often to visit the spot where the women had buried her, and sat musing there, 
when, it was thought by some of his friends, he would have done better to try and 
amuse himself in the chase, or by diverting his thoughts in the war-path. But war 
and hunting had lost their charms for him. His heart was already dead within him. 
He wholly neglected both his war-club and his bows and arrows. 

He had heard the old people say that there was a path that led to the land of 
souls, and he determined to follow it. He accordingly set out one morning, after 
having completed his preparations for the journey. At first he hardly knew which 
way to go. He was only guided by the tradition that he must go south. For a while 
he could see no change in the face of the country. Forests, and hills, and valleys, 
and streams, had the same looks which they wore in his native place. There was 
snow on the ground, when he set out, and it was sometimes seen to be piled and 
matted on the thick trees and bushes. At length it began to diminish, and, as he 
walked on, finally disappeared. The forest assumed a more cheerful appearance, the 
leaves put forth their buds, and before he was aware of the completeness of the 
change, he found he had left behind him the land of snow and ice. The air became 
pure and mild; the dark clouds had rolled away from the sky; a pure field of blue 
was above him; and, as he went forward in his journey, he saw flowers beside his 
path, and heard the song of birds. By these signs he knew that he was going the 
right way, for they agreed with the traditions of his tribe. At length he spied a path. 
It took him through a grove, then up a long and elevated ridge, on the very top of 
which he came to a lodge. At the door stood an old man with white hair, whose 
eyes, though deeply sunk, had a fiery brilliancy. He had a long robe of skins thrown 
loosely around his shoulders, and a staff in his hands. 

The young man began to tell his story; but the venerable chief arrested him before 
he had proceeded to speak ten words. “ I have expected you,” he replied, “ and had 
just risen to bid you welcome to my abode. She whom you seek passed here but a 
short time since, and being fatigued with her journey rested herself here. Enter my 
lodge and be seated, and I will then satisfy your inquiries, and give you directions for 
your journey from this point.” Having done this, and refreshed himself by rest, they 
both issued forth from the lodge door. “ You see yonder gulf,” said the old man, 
“ and the wide-stretching plain beyond : it is the land of souls. You stand upon its 
borders, and my lodge is the gate of entrance. But you cannot take your body along. 
41 


322 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Leave it here with your bow and arrows, your bundle and your dog. You will find 
them safe upon your return.” So saying he re-entered the lodge, and the freed 
traveller bounded forward as if his feet had suddenly been endowed with the power 
of wings. But all things retained their natural colors and shapes. The woods and 
leaves, and streams and lakes, were only more bright and comely than he had ever 
witnessed. Animals bounded across his path with a freedom and confidence which 
seemed to tell him, there was no blood shed there. Birds of beautiful plumage 
inhabited the groves, and sported in the waters. There was but one thing in which 
he saw a very unusual effect. He noticed that his passage was not stopped by trees 
or other objects. He appeared to walk directly through them: they were, in fact, 
but the images or shadows of material forms. He became sensible that he was in the 
land of souls. 

When he had travelled half' a day’s journey, through a country which was con¬ 
tinually becoming more attractive, he came to the banks of a broad lake, in the centre 
of which was a large and beautiful island. He found a canoe of white shining stone, 
tied to the shore. He was now sure that he had come the right path, for the aged 
man had told him of this. There were also shining paddles. He immediately entered 
the canoe, and took the paddles in his hands, when, to his joy and surprise, on turning 
round he beheld the object of his search in .another canoe, exactly its counterpart in 
everything. It seemed to be the shadow of his own. She had exactly imitated his 
motions, and they were side by side. They at once pushed out from the shore, and 
began to cross the lake. Its waves seemed to be rising, and, at a distance, looked 
ready to swallow them up; but just as they entered the whitened edge of them, they 
seemed to melt away, as if they were but the images of waves. But no sooner was 
one wreath of foam passed, than another, more threatening still, rose up. Thus they 
were in perpetual fear; but what added to it was the clearness of the water, through 
which they could see heaps of the bones of beings who had perished before. 

The Master of Life had, however, decreed to let them pass, for the thoughts and acts 
of neither of them had been bad. But they saw many others struggling and sinking 
in the waves. Old men and young men, males and females, of all ages and ranks 
were there: some passed and some sunk. It was only the little children, whose 
canoes seemed to meet no waves. At length every difficulty was gone, as in a 
moment, and they both leaped out on the happy island. They felt that the very air 
was food. It strengthened and nourished them. They wandered together over the 
blissful fields, where everything was formed to please the eye and the ear. There 
were no tempests; there was no ice, nor chilly winds; no one shivered for the want 
of warm clothes; no one suffered for hunger; no one mourned for the dead. They 
saw no graves. They heard of no wars. Animals ran freely about, but there was 
no blood spilled in hunting them : for the air itself nourished them. Gladly would 
the young warrior have remained there for ever, but he was obliged to go back for his 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


323 


body. He did not see the Master of Life, but be heard his voice, as if it were a soft 
breeze. u Go back,” said this voice, “ to the land from whence you came. Your time 
has not yet come. The duties for which I made you, and which you are to perform, 
are not yet finished. Return to your people, and accomplish the acts of a good man. 
You will be the ruler of your tribe for many days. The rules you will observe will 
be told you by my messenger, who keeps the gate. When he surrenders back your 
body, he will tell you what to do. Listen to him, and you shall afterwards rejoin the 
spirit which you have followed, but whom you must now leave behind. She is ac¬ 
cepted, and will be ever here, as young and as happy as she was when I first called 
her from the land of snows.” 

When this voice ceased, the narrator awoke. It was the fancy work of a dream, 
and he was still in the bitter land of snows and hunger, death and tears. 


6. The Fate of the Red- Headed Magician. 

Indian life is a life of vicissitudes the year round. As spring returns, the Indians 
who have been out during the winter, in the hunting-grounds, come back to their 
villages in great numbers, and, in a short time, they have nothing to eat. Among 
them, however, there are always several who are willing to glean the neighboring 
woods for game ; these remove from the large villages, and usually go off in separate 
families to support themselves. 

One of these families was composed of a man, his wife, and one son, who is called 
Odkshedoaph Waucheentonoah, which signifies The Child of Strong Desires. The 
latter was about fifteen years old. 

They arrived, the first day, at a place which they thought suitable to encamp at. 
The wife fixed the lodge — the husband went to hunt. Early in the evening he 
returned with a deer. He and his wife being tired, he requested his son to go after 
some water, to the river near by. He replied that it was dark, and he dared not go. 
No persuasion availing, the father brought it. There was a village in the vicinity of 
this place, in which was a warrior of another tribe, called the Red-Head, who was 
celebrated for his bravery and his warlike deeds. The young men of the neighboring 
villages had attempted, in vain, to take his scalp — he was too powerful and subtle 
for their valor or cunning. He lived on an island in the middle of a lake. 

The father told the son that, if he was afraid to go to the river for water after dark, 
he would never kill the Red-Head. The young man was greatly mortified at these 
observations — he would eat nothing, neither would he speak. 

The next day he asked his mother to dress the skin of the deer, and make it into 
moccasins for him — while he busied himself in making a bow and four arrows. 
Without speaking to his father or mother, he departed at sunrise in the morning, and 


324 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


fired one of his arrows, which fell towards the west, which he took for his course. At 
night he came to the place where his arrow had fallen, and, to his joy, he found it in 
a deer. On a piece of this he feasted. The next morning he fired another, and at 
night he found it in another deer. In this manner he fired the four, and was equally 
fortunate with all; and what was very singular, he carelessly left all of his arrows 
sticking in the carcasses of the deers he had killed. 

During the fifth day he was in great distress — having nothing to eat, nor anything 
to obtain food with. Towards night he threw himself upon the ground in utter des¬ 
pair, concluding that he might as well perish there, as go farther and meet with the 
same end. But soon he heard a hollow rumbling noise in the ground beneath him— 
he sprang up, and discovered at a distance a figure like that of a human being, afar off, 
walking with a stick, in a wide hard path leading from a lake to a cabin, in the middle 
of a large prairie. To his surprise this cabin was near to him. He approached a 
little nearer, and concealed himself. He soon discovered that the figure was no 
other than that terrible witch Wokonkahlohn Zooeyah’pee Kahhaitchee—or the Little 
Old Woman who makes War. Her path to the lake was perfectly solid, from her 
frequent visits to the water; and the noise our adventurer had heard was occasioned 
by her striking her walking-stick upon the ground. On the top of this cane were 
tied by the toes birds of every feather—who, whenever the stick struck the earth, 
fluttered and sang in concert their various songs. 

She entered the cabin, and (unperceived by him) laid off her mantle, which was 
entirely made of the scalps of women. Before folding it she shook it several times, 
and every time these scalps uttered loud and repeated shouts of laughter, in which 
the old hag joined. Nothing could have frightened him more than these sounds, 
which he could in no manner account for. After she had laid by the cloak, she 
came directly to him; she having known where he was all the while. She told him 
neither to fear nor despair, for she would be his friend and protector. She took 
him into her cabin, and gave him a supper. She inquired his motives for visiting 
her. He gave her his history, and stated his difficulties, and the manner he had 
been disgraced. She cheered him, and assured him he would be a brave man yet. 

His hair being very short, she took a large leaden comb, and after drawing it 
through several times, his hair became very long. She then proceeded to dress him 
as a female, furnishing him with the necessary garments, painting his face in a 
beautiful manner, and presented him with a basin of shining metal. She directed 
him to put in his girdle a blade of that wide grass, the edge of which is very sharp, 
and to go in the morning to the bank of the lake, which was no other than that 
where Red-Head reigned. She advised him that there would be many Indians on 
the island, who, when he used his basin to drink with, would discover him, and 
come to him to solicit him to be their wife, and to take him across to the island. 
This he was to refuse, and say that he had come a great way to be the wife of 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


325 


Red-Head; and that if he could not cross with his own canoe for her, he should 
return to his village. Soon Red-Head would come in his own canoe, in which he 
was to cross to consent to become his wife; and in the evening he must induce him to 
walk, when he was to take the first convenient opportunity to cut off his head with 
the blade of grass. She gave him also general advice of the manner he was to 
conduct himself, to sustain the assumed character of a woman. His fears would 
scarcely permit him to accede to this plan; but the recollection of his father’s words 
and looks decided him. 

Early the next morning he left the cabin of the old woman, and took his way to 
the bank of the lake. He arrived at a place directly opposite the village of Red- 
Head. It was a beautiful day; the heavens were clear, and the sun shone with great 
radiance. 

He had not sauntered long upon the beach, displaying his basin (which glistened 
astonishingly) to those on the island, by frequently dipping the water and drinking 
therefrom, before many came to see him; and all who saw, admiring his dress and 
personal charms, became suitors and proposed marriage. All offers were rejected, as 
the witch had advised. At length the Red-Head, hearing of the speech of this won¬ 
derful girl, crossed in his own canoe, which was manned by his own men, and 
the ribs of which were made of living rattlesnakes, who were to warn him of all 
treachery and defend him from his enemies. Our adventurer had no sooner stepped 
into the canoe, than they commenced a terrible hissing and rattling, which nearly 
frightened him out of his wits. They were pacified and finally quieted by Red-Head, 
whose proposals were accepted. The fancied bride immediately embarked with him, 
and, after landing upon the island, the marriage took place, and the bride made 
various valuable presents to Red-Head, which had been furnished by the hag. 

As they were sitting in the cabin of Red-Head, around whom was collected his 
numerous relations, the mother of Red-Head regarded with an attentive eye, for a 
long time, the face of her new daughter-in-law. From this scrutiny, she was firmly 
convinced that this singular marriage augured no good to her son. She drew her 
husband to another part of the lodge, and disclosed to him her suspicions. “ This 
can be no female,” said she. “ The figure and manners, the countenance, and, more 
especially, the expression of the eyes, are, beyond doubt, those of a man.” Her hus¬ 
band immediately rejected her suspicions, and rebuked her severely for the indignity 
offered her daughter-in-law. He became so angry, that, seizing the first thing which 
came to hand, which happened to be his pipe-stem, and one of a good size, he beat 
his wife in a most unmerciful manner. 

Upon inquiry, the spectators were informed of the cause of the difficulty; soon 
after which our adventurer, rising, told Red-Head that, after receiving so gross and 
outrageous an insult from his relations, he could not think of remaining with him as 
his wife, but should return at once to his own village and friends. He left the lodge, 


326 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


followed by Red-Head, and walked until he came upon the beach of the island, near 
the place where he first landed. Red-Head entreated him to remain. He urged 
every argument and every motive which he thought could have weight, but they 
were all rejected. During this conference, they had seated themselves upon the 
ground, and Red-Head, in great sorrow, had reclined himself upon our adventurer’s 
lap, who used various means to soothe him, and occasionally yielded apparently to 
his desire to have him remain. Finally, after one of these promises, his feelings 
having become calm, Red-Head fell into a deep sleep. Immediately our adventurer 
seized his blade of grass, and applying it to the neck of Red-Head, drew it across and 
severed the head from the body. Stripping himself of his dress, he caught the head, 
and, plunging into the lake, just reached the other shore when he discovered in the 
darkness of the night the torches of those who were searching for the new-married 
couple. He listened until they had found the headless body, and heard their piercing 
shrieks of sorrow, when he took his way to the cabin of his adviser. 

When he reached the cabin, how much did the Witch rejoice at his success ! She 
admired his prudence, and told him his bravery could never be questioned again. 

Taking the head, she said he need only have brought the scalp; then cutting off a 
small piece for herself, she informed him he might now return home with the head 
which would be an evidence of an achievement, that would cause him to be respected 
among all Indians. “ In your way home you will meet with but one difficulty. The 
God of ike Earth, Maunkahkeeshwoccaung, requires an offering from those who per¬ 
form the most extraordinary achievements. As you walk along in a prairie there 
will be an earthquake — the earth will open and divide the prairie in the middle. 
Take this 'partridge and throw it into the opening, and instantly spring over it.” All 
this happened precisely as she had foretold, and he reached a place near his village in 
safety where he secreted the head of Red-Head. On entering the village he found 
that his parents had returned to that place, and that they were in great sorrow and 
distress for the loss of their son. One and another of the young men had presented 
themselves to the disconsolate parents, and said, “Look up, I am your son.” 
Having been often deceived in this manner, when their own son presented himself 
they sat with their heads down and with their eyes nearly blinded with weeping. It 
was long before they could be prevailed upon to bestow a glance upon him. It was 
yet longer before they recognised him for their son; but when he recounted his adven¬ 
tures they believed him mad—the young men laughed at him. He left the lodge, and 
returned after a short absence with the Red Head. That well-known head was soon 
recognised, and our adventurer was immediately placed among the first warriors of 
the nation, and himself and family were ever after greatly respected a,nd esteemed. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


327 


7. The Magic Circle in the Prairie.— An Allegory. 

A young hunter found a circular path one day in a prairie, without any trail lead¬ 
ing to, or from it. It was smooth and well-beaten, and looked as if footsteps had trod 
in it recently. This puzzled and amazed him. He hid himself in the grass near by, 
to see what this wonder should betoken. After waiting a short time, he thought he 
heard music in the air. He listened more attentively and could clearly distinguish the 
sound, but nothing could be seen but a mere speck, like something almost out of 
sight. In a short time it became plainer and plainer, and the music sweeter and 
sweeter. The object descended rapidly, and when it came near it proved to be a car 
or basket of ozier containing twelve beautiful girls, who each had a kind of little drum 
which was struck with the grace of an angel. It came down in the centre of the 
ring, and the instant it touched the ground they leapt out and began to dance in the 
circle, at the same time striking a shining ball. 

The young hunter had seen many a dance, but none that equalled this. The music 
was sweeter than ever he had heard. But nothing could equal the beauty of the 
girls. He admired them all, but was most struck with the youngest. He determined 
to seize her, and after getting near the circle without giving alarm made the attempt; 
but the moment they spied a man, they all nimbly leapt into the basket and were 
drawn back to the skies. 

Poor Algon the hunter was completely foiled. He stood gazing upward as they 
withdrew till there was nothing left, and then began to bewail his fate. “ They are 
gone for ever, and I shall see them no more.” He returned to his lodge, but he could 
not forget this wonder. His mind preyed upon it all night, and the next day he went 
back to the prairie, but in order to conceal his design he turned himself into an 
opossum. He had not waited long when he saw the wicker car descend, and heard 
the same sweet music. They commenced the same sportive dance, and seemed even 
more beautiful and graceful than before. He crept slowly towards the ring, but the 
instant the sisters saw him they were startled, and sprang into their car. It rose but 
a short distance when one of the elder sisters spoke. “ Perhaps,” said she, “ it is come 
to show us how the game is played by mortals.” “Oh no!” the youngest replied, 
“ quick, let us ascend.” And all joining in a chant, they rose out of sight. 

Algon returned to his own lodge again; but the night seemed a very long one, and 
he went back betimes the next day. He reflected upon the plan to follow to secure 
success. He found an old stump near by in which there were a number of mice : he 
thought their small form would not create alarm, and accordingly assumed the shape 
of a mouse. He first brought the stump and set it up near the ring. The sisters 
came down and resumed their sport. “But see,” cried the younger sister, “that stump 
was not there before.” She ran affrighted towards the car. They only smiled, and 


328 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


gathering round the stump, struck it in jest, when out ran the mice, and Algon among 
the rest. They killed them all but one, which was pursued by the youngest sister; 
but just as she had raised her stick to kill it, the form of the hunter arose, and he 
clasped his prize in his arms. The other eleven sprang to their ozier basket and were 
drawn up to the skies. 

He exerted all his skill to please his bride and win her affections. He wiped the 
tears from her eyes. He related his adventures in the chase. He dwelt upon the 
charms of life on the earth. He was incessant in his attentions, and picked out the 
way for her to walk as he led her gently towards his lodge. He felt his heart glow 
with joy as she entered it, and from that moment he was one of the happiest of men. 
Winter and summer passed rapidly away, and their happiness was increased by the 
addition of a beautiful boy to their lodge circle. She was in truth the daughter of one 
of the stars, and as the scenes of earth began to pall upon her sight, she sighed to 
revisit her father. But she was obliged to hide these feelings from her husband. She 
remembered the charm that would carry her up, and took occasion while Algon was 
engaged in the chase to construct a wicker basket, which she kept concealed. In the 
mean time she collected such rarities from the earth as she thought would please her 
father as well as the most dainty kinds of food. When all was in readiness, she went 
out one day while Algon was absent to the charmed ring, taking her little son with 
her. As soon as they got into the car, she commenced her song and the basket rose. 
As the song was wafted by the winds, it caught her husband’s ear. It was a voice 
which he well knew, and he instantly ran to the prairie. But he could not reach the 
ring before he saw his wife and child ascend. He lifted up his voice in loud appeals, 
but they were unavailing. The basket still went up. He watched it till it became a 
small speck, and finally it vanished in the sky. He then bent his head down to the 
ground, and was miserable. 

Algon bewailed his loss through a long winter and a long summer. But he found 
no relief. He mourned his wife’s loss sorely, but his son’s still more. In the mean¬ 
time, his wife had reached her home in the stars, and almost forgot, in the blissful 
employments there, that she had left a husband on the earth. She was reminded of 
this by the presence of her son, who, as he grew up, became anxious to visit the scene 
of his birth. His grandfather said to his daughter one day, “ Go, my child, and take 
your son down to his father, and ask him to come up and live with us. But tell him 
to bring along a specimen of each kind of bird and animal he kills in the chase.” She 
accordingly took the boy and descended. Algon, who was ever near the enchanted 
spot, heard her voice as she came down the sky. His heart beat with impatience as 
he saw her form and that of his son, and they were soon clasped in his arms. 

He heard the message of the Star, and began to hunt with the greatest activity, 
that he might collect the present. He spent whole nights, as well as days, in search¬ 
ing for every curious and beautiful bird or animal. He only preserved a tail, foot, or 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


329 


wing of each, to identify the species; and, when all was ready, they went to the circle 
and were carried up. 

Great joy was manifested on their arrival at the starry plains. The star-chief 
invited all his people to a feast, and, when they had assembled, he proclaimed aloud, 
that each one might take of the earthly gifts such as he liked best. A very strange 
confusion immediately arose. Some chose a foot, some a wing, some a tail, and some 
a claw. Those who selected tails or claws were changed into animals, and ran off; 
the others assumed the form of birds, and flew away. Algon chose a white hawk’s 
feather, which was his totem. His wife and son followed his example, when each one 
became a white hawk. He spread his wings, and, followed by his wife and son, 
descended to the earth, where his species are still to be found. 


8. The History of the Little Orphan who carries the White 
Feather. — A Dacota Legend. 

There was an old man with his grandchild, whom he had taken when quite an 
infant, who lived in the middle of a forest. The child had no other relative. They 
had all been destroyed by six large giants, and he was not informed that he ever had 
any other parent or protector than his grandfather. The nation to whom he belonged 
had put up their children as a wager against those of the giants, upon a race, which 
the giants gained, and thus destroyed all the other children. Being the sixth child, 
he was called Chacopee. 

There was a prediction, that there would be a great man of this nation, who would 
wear a white feather, and who would astonish every one with his skill and bravery. 

The grandfather gave the child a bow and some arrows to play with. He went 
into the woods and saw a rabbit, but not knowing what it was, he came to his grand¬ 
father and described it to him. He told him what it was, and that it was good to 
eat, and that if he shot one of his arrows at it, he would probably kill it. He did so; 
and in this manner he continued on hunting under the instructions of his grandfather, 
acquiring skill in killing deer and other large animals, and he became an approved 
hunter. 

His curiosity was excited to know what was passing in the world. He went one 
day to the edge of a prairie, where he saw ashes like those at his home, and poles of 
lodges. He returned and inquired if his grandfather made them. He was told that 
he had not, nor had he seen any such things; that it was all his imagination. 

Another day he went out to see what there was curious, and on entering into the 
woods, he heard a voice calling after him—“Come here, you wearer of the white 
feather. You do not wear the white feather yet, but you ought to wear it. Return 
home and take a short nap. When asleep, you will hear a voice which will tell you 
42 


330 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


to rise and smoke; you will see in your dream a pipe, sack, and a large white feather. 
When you awake you will find these articles. Put the feather on your head, and 
you will become a great hunter, a great warrior, and a great man, capable of doing 
anything. As a proof that you will be a great hunter, when you smoke the smoke 
will turn into pigeons.” He then informed him who he was; of the fate of his real 
parents, brothers, and sisters; and of the imposition his grandfather now practised on 
him. He gave him a vine, and told him he was of an age to revenge his relations. 
a When you meet your enemy, you will run a race with him; he will not see the 
vine, it being enchanted. When you are running with him, you will throw it over 
his head, and entangle him so as you will win the race.” Long ere this speech was 
ended, he had turned to the quarter from whence the voice came, and, to his astonish¬ 
ment, saw there was another man in the world beside his grandfather; but what most 
surprised him was that this was an old man, who, from his breast down, was ivood, 
and he appeared to be immoveably fixed to the earth. 

He returned home, slept, heard the voice, awakened, and found the promised 
articles. His grandfather was greatly surprised to find him with a white feather, 
and to see flocks of pigeons flying out of his lodge. He then recollected what had 
been predicted, and began to weep at the prospect of losing his charge. 

He departed the next morning for the purpose of seeking his enemies and revenging 
himself upon them. He came to a large lodge in the middle of a wood, which was 
occupied by his enemies, the giants, the inhabitants of which had been apprised of 
his coming by the little spirits who carry the news. They came out and gave the cry 
of joy, and as he approached nearer, they began to make sport of him among them¬ 
selves, saying, “ Here comes the little man with the white feather, who is to do such 
wonders;” but at the same time to him they talked very fair, telling him he was a 
brave man, and would do every thing. This was to encourage him to go on to his 
own destruction. He knew, however, what they were about. 

Chacopee went into the lodge fearlessly, and they told him to commence the race 
with the smallest of them. The goal, or stake to which they run, was a peeled tree, 
towards the rising sun, and then back to the starting place, where was a Chaunkahpee, 
or war-club, made of wood as hard as iron, which he who won The race was to use to 
cut off the other’s head with. They ran; — Chacopee used his vine and gained the 
race, and immediately cut off his competitor’s head. In this manner he destroyed 
five of them. This was the work of five successive mornings. The survivor wished 
him to leave the heads as he cut them off; as they believed by one of their medicines 
they could unite them again to the bodies; but the little champion insisted upon 
carrying them to his grandfather. 

On the sixth morning, before he went to the giant’s lodge, he saw his old counsellor, 
who was stationary in the woods, who told him that he was about to be deceived; 
that he had never known any other sex than his own; that as he was on his way lo 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


331 


the lodge he would meet the most beautiful woman in the world, to whom he was to 
pay no attention, but on meeting her to wish himself to change into a male elk; that 
the transformation would take place, and the animal would go to feeding, and not 
regard the woman. 

He proceeded towards the lodge, met the temptress, and became an elk. She 
reproached him (this woman, by the way, was the sixth giant) for having turned into 
an elk on seeing her, who had travelled a great distance for the purpose of courting 
him and becoming his wife. Her reproaches and beauty affected him so much that 
he wished himself a man again, and he at once resumed his natural shape. They sat 
down together, and he began to caress and make love to her, and finally laid his head 
in her lap and went to sleep. She kept pushing him off her lap, for the purpose of 
trying if he was sound asleep, and when it awakened him, told him she disturbed him 
because he laid too heavy upon her. Finally, when he became very sound asleep, she 
took her axe and broke his back. She then assumed her natural shape, which was 
that of the sixth giant, changed Chacopee into a dog, and made him follow her 
towards the lodge in that degrading shape. He took the white feather, and stuck it 
in his own head. 

There was an Indian village at some distance, in which were two girls, rival sisters, 
the daughters of a chief, who were doing penance for the purpose of enticing the 
carrier of the white feather to their village. They each hoped to make him their 
husband. They each made themselves lodges a short distance from the village. As 
he approached, the girls saw the white feather, and the eldest prepared her lodge in a 
neat manner, for the purpose of receiving him. The other, supposing his choice would 
not be made for such parade, as he was a wise man, touched nothing about her lodge. 
The eldest went out and met him, and invited him in. He accepted the invitation, 
and soon made her his wife. The youngest invited the dog into her lodge, made him 
a good bed, and treated him with attention, as if he were her husband. 

The sixth giant, supposing that whoever possessed the white feather possessed also 
all its virtues, went out upon the prairie to hunt, but returned without anything. 
The dog went out the same day hunting upon a river, and drew a stone out of the 
water, which immediately became a beaver. The next day the giant followed the 
dog, and, hiding behind a tree, saw the dog go to the river and draw out a stone, 
which at once turned into a beaver. As soon as the dog had left the place, the giant 
went to the river, and pulling out a stone, had the satisfaction of seeing it transformed 
into a beaver also. Tying it to his belt, he carried it home, and, as is customary, 
threw it down by the door of his lodge and entered in. After he had been seated a 
short time, he told his wife to bring in his belt, or collar. She did so; and returned 
with it, tied to nothing but a stone. 

The next day, the dog finding his method of catching beavers was discovered by the 
giant, went to a wood at some distance, and broke off a limb from a tree which had 


332 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY, ETC. 


been scorched black by the fire, which immediately became a bear. The giant, who 
had again watched him, did the same, and carried a bear home, but his wife could 
find nothing but a burnt stick tied to his belt. 

The next day, the wife determined she would go to her father, and let him know 
what a valuable hunter she had for her husband. As soon as they had departed, the 
dog made signs to his mistress, or wife, to sweat him after the manner of the Indians. 
She accordingly made a lodge, just large enough for him to creep into, put in heated 
stones in such a manner that she could pour water upon them, and after she had 
sweated him thus for some time, he came out a very handsome man, but had not the 
power of speech. 

The eldest daughter went to her father, and told him of the disgraceful manner 
in which her sister lived with a dog, and also of his singular faculty for hunting. 

The old man suspecting there was some magic in it, sent a deputation of young 
men and women to ask her to come to him, and to bring her dog with her. They 
went, and were much surprised to find in the place of the dog so fine a young man. 
They accompanied the delegation to the father, who was also much astonished. 
He assembled all the wise and aged men of the nation, to see the strange exploits 
of the wearer of the white feather, which it was understood he could perform. The 
giant took his pipe and filled it, and passed it to the Indians, to see if anything 
would happen when they smoked. It passed around to the dog, who made a sign 
to pass it to the giant first, which was done-; but he effected nothing. Then the 
dog-man took it, and made a sign to them to put the white feather upon his head. 
This was done—immediately he regained his speech; he smoked, and behold immense 
flocks of pigeons rushed from the smoke. 

The chief demanded of him his history, which he recounted to him faithfully. 
The chief, after it was finished, ordered that the giant should be transformed into 
a dog,, and turned into the middle of the village, and that the boys should with clubs 
pound him to death. 

The chief then ordered, on the petition of the White-Feather, that all the young 
men should employ themselves four days in making arrows, and gave him a buffalo 
robe. This robe the White-Feather cut into small pieces, and sowed in the prairie. 
At the end of the four days he invited them to a buffalo hunt; and they found that 
those pieces of skin had become a very large herd of buffalo. They killed as many 
as they pleased, and had a grand feast. 

The White-Feather then got his wife to ask her father if he would permit her to 
visit White-Feather’s grandfather with him. He replied to this solicitation that 
a woman must follow her husband into whatever quarter of the world he may 
choose to go. 

They departed, made their visit, and were received with joy. 


B. INDIAN PICTOGRAPHY. 


Observations on the Pictographic Method of Communicating 
Ideas by Symbolic and Representative Devices of the 
North American Indians. 

Pictographic scrolls and devices, rudely cut or painted on wood, rocks, or the 
scarified trunks of trees, and even songs recorded by this method, are well known 
traits of our aboriginal tribes. Nothing, indeed, is more common. It was thought 
due to the character of the tribes to examine the subject, with a view to determine 
the system of symbols, if system it may he called; and to discover the rules by 
which the symbols are to be interpreted. 

Perhaps the art merits the term of picture-writing. It offers, at least, a new 
point of comparison and resemblance between our wild hunter tribes and other 
barbaric nations, and particularly the more advanced communities of Mexico and 
Peru. If we mistake not, the system is radically the same. Both are largely 
mnemonic, and it is essential to their explanation that the interpreter be acquainted, 
not only with the characteristic points and customs of their history, but with their 
peculiar mythology, idolatry, and mode of worship. It is certainly the only method 
these tribes possess of communicating ideas. But whatever rank may be assigned 
the system, the topic is curious and important in considering the mental capacities 
of the race; and it could not well be omitted in any enlarged view of them. 


1. Preliminary Considerations. 

Pictorial and symbolical Representations constitute one of the earliest observed traits in the 
Customs and Arts of the American Aborigines. — This Art found to assume a systematic 
Form, among the rude Hunter Tribes of North America, in the year 1820, when it was 
noticed on the Source of the Mississippi. — This Instance given, with a Drawing. — The Hint 
pursued. 

The practice of the North American tribes, of drawing figures and pictures on skins, 
trees, and various other substances, has been noticed by travellers and writers from 
the earliest times. Among the more northerly tribes, these figures are often observed 
on that common substitute for the ancient papyrus among these nations, the bark of 

(333) 


334 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


the betula papyracea, or white birch: a substance possessing a smooth surface, easily 
impressed, very flexible, and capable of being preserved in rolls. Often these devices 
are cut, or drawn in colors, on the trunks of trees, more rarely on rocks or boulders, 
when they are called muzzinabiks. According to Colden and Lafitou, records of this 
rude character were formerly to be seen, on the blazed surface of trees, along the 
ancient paths and portages leading from the sources of the rivers of New York and 
Pennsylvania which flow into the Atlantic, and in the Valley of the St. Lawrence. 
Pictorial drawings, and symbols of this kind, are now to be found only on the unre¬ 
claimed borders of the great area west of the Alleghanies and the Lakes; in the. 
wide prairies of the West; or along the Missouri and the Upper Mississippi. It is 
known that such devices were in use, to some extent, at the era of the discovery, 
among most of the tribes situated between the latitudes of the capes of Florida and 
Hudson’s Bay, although they have been considered as more particularly characteristic 
of the tribes of the Algonquin type. In a few instances, these simple pictorial 
inscriptions have been found to partake of a monumental cast, by being painted or 
stained on the faces of rocks, or on large loose stones on the banks of streams; and 
still more rarely, devices were scratched or pecked into the surface, as is found on 
Cunningham’s Island, in Lake Erie, and in the Valley of the Alleghany, at Venango. 
Those who are intent on observations of this kind will find figures and rude inscrip¬ 
tions, at the present time, on the grave-posts which mark the places of Indian 
sepulture at the West and North. The tribes who rove over the western prairies, 
inscribe them on the skins of the buffalo. North of latitude 42°, the southern limit 
of the birch, which furnishes at once the material of canoes, wigwams, boxes, and 
other articles, and constitutes, in fact, the Indian paper, tablets of hard-wood are 
confined to devices which are hieratic, and are employed alone by their priests, 
prophets, and medicine-men; and these characters uniformly assume a mystical or 
sacred import. The recent discovery, on one of the tributaries of the Susquehanna, 
of an Indian map drawn on stone, with intermixed devices, a copy of which appears 
in the first volume of the collections of the Historical Committee of the American 
Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, proves, although it is thus far isolated, that stone 
was also employed in that branch of inscription. This discovery was in the area 
occupied by the Lenapees, who are known to have practised the art, which they 
called Ola Walum. 

Colden, in his his history of the Five Nations, 1 informs us that when, in 1696, the 
Count de Frontenac marched a well-appointed army into the Iroquois country, with 
artillery and all other means of regular military offence, he found, on the banks of the 
Onondaga, now called Oswego River, a tree, on the trunk of which the Indians had 
depicted the French army, and deposited two bundles of cut rushes at its foot, con- 


1 London Edition, 1747, page 190. 




CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


335 


sisting of 1434 pieces; an act of symbolical defiance on their part, which was intended 
to inform their Gallic invaders that they would have to encounter this number of 
warriors. In speaking, in another passage, of the general traits of the Five Nations, 
he mentions the general custom prevalent among the Mohawks going to-war, of 
painting with red paint on the trunk of a. tree, such symbols as might serve to denote 
the object of their expedition. Among the devices was a canoe pointed towards the 
enemy’s country. On their return, it was their practice to visit the same tree, or 
precinct, and denote the result pictographically; the canoe being, in this case, drawn 
with its bows in the opposite or home direction. Lafitou, in his account of the nations 
of Canada, makes observations on this subject which denote the general prevalence 
of the custom in that quarter. Other writers, dating as far back as Smith and De Br6, 
bear testimony to the existence of this trait among the Yirginia tribes. Few have, 
however, done more than notice it, and none are known to have furnished any 
amount of connected details. 

A single element in the system attracted early notice. I allude to the institution 
of the Totem, which has been well known among the Algonquin tribes from the set¬ 
tlement of Canada. By this device, the early missionaries observed that the natives 
marked their division of a tribe into clans, and of a clan into families, and the dis¬ 
tinction was thus very clearly preserved. Affinities were denoted and kept up, long 
after tradition had failed in its testimony. This distinction, which is marked with 
much of the certainty of heraldic bearings as known in the feudal system, was seen 
to mark the arms, the lodge, and the trophies of the North American chief and war¬ 
rior. It was likewise employed to give identity to the clan of which he was a 
member, on his ad-je-dd-tig, or grave-post. This record went but little farther in 
communicating information; a few strokes or geometric devices were drawn on these 
simple monuments, to denote the number of men he had slain in battle. 

It has not been suspected, in any notices to which I have had access, that there 
was what may be called a pictorial alphabet, or a series of homophonous figures, in 
which, by the juxtaposition of symbols representing acts, as well as objects of action, 
and by the introduction of simple adjunct signs, a series of disjunctive, yet generally 
connected ideas, were denoted; or that the most prominent incidents of life and death 
could be recorded so as to be transmitted from one generation to another, as long, at 
least, as the monument and the people endured. Above all, it was not anticipated 
that there should have been found, as will be observed in the subsequent details, a 
system of symbolic notation for the songs and incantations of the Indian medas and 
[priests, making an appeal to the memory for the preservation of language and musical 
notes. 

Persons familiar with the state of the western tribes of this continent, particularly 
in the higher northern latitudes, have long been aware that the songs of the Indian 
priesthood and wabenoes, were sung from a kind of pictorial notation, made on bark. 


336 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


It is a fact which has often come to the observation of military officers performing 
duties on those frontiers, and of persons exercising occasional functions in civil life, 
who have passed through their territories. But there is no class of persons to whom 
the fact of such notations is so well known, as the class of Indian traders and inter¬ 
preters who visit or reside a part of the season at the Indian villages. I have never 
conversed with any of this latter class of persons, to whom the fact of such inscrip¬ 
tions, made in various ways, was not so familiar as in their view to excite no surprise, 
or seldom to demand remark. 

My attention Was first called to the subject in 1820. In the summer of that year 
I was a member of the United States exploring expedition to the sources of the 
Mississippi. At the mouth of the small river Huron, on the banks of the Lake 
Superior, there was an Indian grave fenced around with saplings, and protected with 
much care. At its head stood a post, a tabular stick, upon which was drawn the 
figure of the animal which was the symbol of the clan to which the deceased chief 
belonged. Strokes of red paint were added, to denote either the number of war 
parties in which he had been engaged, or the number of scalps he had actually taken 
from the enemy. The interpreter who accompanied us, and who was himself of part 
Indian blood, gave the latter, as the true import of these marks. 

On quitting the river St. Louis, which flows into the head of the lake at the 
Fond du Lac, to cross the summit dividing its waters from those of the Mississippi, 
the way led through dense and tangled woods and swamps, and the weather proved 
dark and rainy, so that, for a couple of days together, we had scarcely a glimpse of 
the sun. 

The party consisted of sixteen persons, with two Indian guides; but the latter, 
with all their adroitness in threading the mazes of the wilderness, were completely 
lost for nearly an entire day. At night, during the bewilderment, we lay down on 
ground elevated but a few inches above the level of a swamp. The next morning, 
as we prepared to leave the camp, a small strip of birch bark, containing devices, was 
observed elevated on the top of a split sapling, some eight or ten feet high. One 
end of this pole was thrust firmly into the ground, leaning in the direction we were 
to go. On going up to this object, it was found, with the aid of the interpreter, to be 
a symbolic record of the circumstances of our crossing this summit, and of the night’s 
encampment at this spot. Each person was appropriately depicted, distinguishing the 
soldiers from the officer in command, and the latter from the savans of the party. 
The Indians themselves were depicted without hats; a hat being, as we noticed, the 
general symbol for a white man or European. The entire record, of which a figure 
is annexed, (Plate 47, fig. D,) accurately symbolized the circumstances; and they 
were so clearly drawn, according to their conventional rules, that the intelligence 
would be communicated thereby to any of their people who might chance to wander 
this way. This was the object of the inscription. The scroll was interpreted thus :— 




Plate 47 



PICTOGRAPHIC WRITING. 

























































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


337 


Fig. No. 1 represents the subaltern officer in command of the party of the United 
States troops. He is drawn with a sword to denote his official rank. No. 2 denotes 
the person who officiated in quality of secretary. He is represented as holding a 
book; the Indians having understood him to be an attorney. No. 3 denotes the 
geologist and mineralogist of the party. He is drawn with a hammer. Nos. 4 and 5 
are attaches; No. 6, the interpreter. 

The group of figures marked 9, represents eight infantry soldiers, each of whom, as 
shown in group No. 10, was armed with a musket. No. 15 denotes that they had a 
separate fire, and constituted a separate mess. Figs. 7 and 8 represent the two 
Chippewa guides, the principal of whom, called Chamees, or the Pouncing-hawk, led 
the way over this dreary summit. These are the only human figures depicted on this 
unique bark-letter, who are drawn without the distinguishing symbol of a hat. This 
was the characteristic seized on by them, and generally employed by the tribes, to 
distinguish the Red from the White race. Figs. 11 and 12 represent a prairie hen, 
and a green tortoise, which constituted the sum of the preceding day’s chase, which 
were eaten at the encampment. The inclination of the pole was designed to show 
the course pursued from that particular spot: there were three hacks in it below the 
scroll of bark, to indicate the estimated length of this part of the journey, computing 
from water to water; that is to say, from the head of the portage Aux Couteaux, on 
the St. Louis river, to the open shores of Sandy Lake, the Ka-marton-go-gom-ag, or 
Comtaguma of the Odjibwas. 

The story was thus briefly and simply told; and this memorial was set up by the 
guides to advertise any of their countrymen, who might chance to wander in that 
direction, of the adventure — for it was evident, both from the course taken, and the 
dubiousness which had marked the prior day’s wanderings, that they regarded our 
transit over this broad savannah in this light. 

Before we had penetrated quite to this summit, we came to another evidence of their 
skill in this species of knowledge, consisting of one of those contrivances which they 
denominate Man-i-to-wa-tig, or sacred structures. On reaching this spot, our guides 
shouted, whether from superstitious impulse, or the joy of having found the spot, we 
could not tell: we judged the latter. It consisted of eight poles, of equal length, 
shaved smooth and round, painted with yellow ochre, and set so as to enclose a square 
area. It appeared to have been one of those rude temples, or places of incantation or 
worship, known to the medas or priests, where certain rites and ceremonies are per¬ 
formed. But it was not an ordinary medicine lodge. There had been far more care 
in its construction. 

On reaching the village of Sandy Lake, on the upper Mississippi, the figures of 
animals, birds, and other devices, were found on the rude coffins or wrappings of their 
dead, which were scaffolded around the precincts of the fort, and upon the open shores 
of the lake. Similar devices were also observed here, as at other points in this region, 
43 


338 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


upon their arms, war-clubs, canoes, and other pieces of movable property, as well as 
upon their grave-posts. 

In the descent of the Mississippi, we observed pictorial devices painted on a rock, 
below and near the mouth of Elk River, and at a rocky island in the river, at the 
Little Falls. In the course of our descent to the Falls of St. Anthony, we observed 
another bark-letter, (A, Plate 48,) as the party now began to call these inscriptions, 
suspended on a high pole, on an elevated bank of the river, on its west shore. At this 
spot, where we encamped for the night, and which is just opposite a point of highly 
crystallized hornblende rock, which, from this rude memorial, we called the Peace 
Rock;, there were left standing the poles or skeletons of a great number of Sioux lodges. 
On inspecting this scroll of bark, we found it had reference to negotiations for bringing 
about a permanent peace between the Sioux and Chippewas. A large party of the 
former, from St. Peters, headed by their chief, had proceeded thus far, in the hope of 
meeting the Chippewa hunters, on their summer hunt. They had been countenanced 
or directed in this step by Colonel Leavenworth, the commanding officer of the new 
post, just, then about to be erected. The inscription, which was read off at once by 
the Chippewa chief Babesacundabee, who was with us, told all this; it gave the name 
of the chief who had led the party, and the number of his followers, and imparted to 
that chief the first assurance he had that his mission, for the same purpose, from the 
sources of the Mississippi, would be favorably received by the Sioux. This scroll, 
denoting the same art to be possessed by the Dacota family of tribes, is described in 
Plate 48. 

After our arrival at St. Anthony’s Falls, it was found that this system of picture 
writing was as familiar to the Dacotah, as we had found it among the Algonquin race. 
At Prairie du Chien, and at Green Bay, the same evidences were observed, in their 
memorials of burial, among the Menomonies and the Winnebagoes ; at Chicago 
among the Pottawatomies, and at Michillimackinac, among the Chippewas and Otta- 
was who resort, in such numbers, to that Island. While at the latter place, I went 
to visit the grave of a noted chief of the Menomonie tribe, who had been known by 
his French name of Toma, i. e., Thomas. He had been buried on the hill west of 
the village ; and on looking at his Ad-je-da-tig or grave-post, it bore a pictorial inscrip¬ 
tion of this kind, commemorating some of the prominent achievements of his life. 

These hints served to direct my attention to the subject, when I returned to the 
country in an official capacity, in 1822. It was observed that the figures of a deer, a 
bear, a turtle, and a crane, according to this system, stand respectively for the names of 
men, and preserve the language very well, by yielding to the person conversant with it 
the corresponding words, of Addick, Muckwa, Mickenack, and Adjeejauk. Marks, 
circles, dots, and drawings of various kinds, were employed to symbolize the number of 
warlike deeds. Adjunct devices appeared to typify or explain adjunct acts. The char 
racter itself, they called Kekeewin. If the system went no farther, the record would 


































- 




































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


839 


yield a kind of information both gratifying and useful to a people without letters. 
There was abundant evidence in my first year’s observation, to denote that this 
mode of communication was in vogue generally and well understood by the northern 
tribes, for burial, and what may be called geographical purposes; but it hardly seemed 
susceptible of a farther or extended use. A personal acquaintance with one of their 
Medas named Shingwaukonce, a man of much intelligence, and well versed in their 
customs, religion, and history, denoted a more enlarged application of it. I observed 
in the hands of this man a tabular piece of wood, covered over on both sides with a 
series of devices cut between parallel lines, which he referred to, as if they were the 
notes of his medicine and mystical songs. I heard him sing these songs, and observed 
that their succession was, to a great extent, fixed and uniform. By cultivating his 
acquaintance, and by suitable attentions and presents, such as the occasion rendered 
proper, he consented to explain the meaning of each figure, the object symbolized, and 
the words attached to each symbol. By this revelation, which was made with closed 
doors, I became, according to his notions, a member or initiate of the Medicine 
Society, and also of the Wabeno Society. Care was taken to write each sentence of 
the songs and chants in the Indian language, with its appropriate devices, and to 
subjoin a literal translation in English. When this had been done, and the system 
considered, it was very clear that the devices were mnemonic—that any person could 
sing from these devices, very accurately, what he had previously committed to 
memory, and that the system revealed a curious scheme of symbolic notation. 

All the figures thus employed as the initiatory points of study, related, exclusively, 
to either the medicine dance, or the wabeno dance ; and each section of figures related, 
exclusively, to one or the other. There was some intermixture or commingling of 
characters, as the class of subjects was sometimes common to each. It was perceived, 
subsequently, that the pictographic signs permitted a classification of symbols, applied 
to the war-songs, to hunting, and to other specific topics. The entire inscriptive 
system, reaching from its first rudimental characters in the ad-je-da-tig, or grave-board, 
to the extended scroll of bark, covered with the secret arts of their magicians, jossa- 
keeds, and prophets, derived a new interest from this feature. Much comparative 
precision was imparted to interpretations in the hands of the initiated, which before, 
or to others, had very little. An interest was thus cast over it distinct from its 
novelty; and, in truth, the entire pictorial system was invested with a character of 
investigation, which promised both interest and instruction. 

It has been thought that a simple statement of these circumstances would best 
answer the end in view, and might well occupy the place of a more formal or profound 
introduction. In bringing forward the elements of the system, after much reflection, 
it is thought, however, that a few remarks on the general character of this art may 
not be out of place: for, simple as it is, we perceive in it the native succedaneum for 
letters. It is not only the sole graphic mode they have for communicating ideas, but 


340 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


it is the mode of communicating all classes of ideas commonly entertained by them. 
So considered, it reveals a new and unsuspected mode of obtaining light on their 
opinions of a deity, of the structure or cosmogony of the globe, of astronomy, of the 
various classes of natural objects, their ideas of immortality and a future state, and 
the prevalent notions of the union of spiritual and material matter. So wide and 
varied, indeed, is the range opened by the subject of pictography, that we may con¬ 
sider the Indian system of figure-writing as the thread which ties up the scroll of the 
Red Man’s views of life and death ; that it reveals the true theory of his hopes and 
fears, and denotes the relation he bears, in the secret chambers of his own thoughts, 
to his Maker. What a stoic and suspicious temper would often hold him back from 
uttering to another, and what limited language would sometimes prevent his fully 
revealing, if he wished, symbols and figures can be made to represent and express. 
The Indian is not a man prone to describe his god, personal or general, but he is ready 
to depict him by a symbol. He may conceal, under the figures of a serpent, a turtle, 
or a wolf, wisdom, strength, or malignity; or convey, under the picture of a sun, the 
idea of a Supreme, All-seeing Intelligence. But he is not prepared to discourse upon 
these things. What he believes on this head he will not declare to a white man or 
a stranger. His happiness and success in life are thought to depend upon the secrecy 
of that knowledge of the Creator and his system, in the Indian view of benign and 
malignant agents. To reveal this to others, even to his own people, is, he believes, to 
expose himself to the counteracting influence of other agents known to his subtle 
scheme of necromancy and superstition, and to hazard success and life itself. This 
conduces to make the Red Man eminently a man of fear, suspicion, and secrecy. But 
he cannot avoid some of these disclosures in his pictures and figures. These figures 
represent ideas — whole ideas, and their juxtaposition or relation on a scroll of bark, 
a tree, or a rock, discloses a continuity of ideas. This is the basis of the system. 

Picture-writing is indeed the literature of the Indians. It cannot be interpreted, 
however rudely, without letting one know what the Red Man thinks and believes. 
It shadows forth the Indian intellect, standing in the place of letters for the 
unishinaba. 1 It shows the Red Man, in all periods of our history, both as he was 
and as he is; for there is nothing more true than that, save and except the compa¬ 
ratively few instances where they have truly embraced experimental Christianity, 
there has not been, beyond a few customs, such as dress and other externals, any 
appreciable and permanent change in the Indian character since Columbus first 
dropped anchor at the Island of Guanahana. 


A generic term, denoting the common people of the Indian race. 





CHARACTER OP THE INDIAN RACE. 


341 


2. Extreme Antiquity of Pictorial Notation. 

Antiquity of the Art of Pictorial Writing; — Its general use amongst the Oriental Nations; — 
its connection with Idolatry; — the multiplicity of its Symbols, and its peculiarities as a 
System of communicating Ideas. — Its advance, in the progress of Nations, into the Hiero¬ 
glyphic, the Phonetic, and the Alphabetical Mode. — Consideration of the Egyptian Systems 
of Hieroglyphics. 

Picture-writing was the earliest form of the notation of ideas adopted by mankind. 
There can be little question that it was practised in the primitive ages, and that it 
preceded all attempts both at hieroglyphic and alphabetic writing. It is impossible 
to think of a time when man had not the faculty and disposition to draw a figure. 
The very power of imitation, implanted in the mind, implies it. The first track of 
an animal on the sand, the very shadow of a tree on the plain, would suggest it. The 
figure of an animal would be the symbol for the animal; and that of a man, for a 
man. A bow or a spear drawn in the hand of the latter, would be the natural symbol 
for an act. Thus actual objects, and actual deeds, past or future, would at once be 
symbolized. Was man ever in a condition not to accomplish this ? Even supposing 
that he was created a barbarian, and not a civilized or industrial being, which would 
be adverse to all sacred authority, he would not long wait to compass this simple 
attainment. Here, then, is the first element of transmitting thought. A bow and 
arrow, a spear and club, a sword and javelin, were no sooner made than they were 
employed as symbols of acts: for next to action itself, is the desire of perpetuating 
the remembrance of the act, however rudely or imperfectly it may be done. 

All arts and inventions are but the monuments of pre-existing thought. They 
embody, in wood, iron, or other materials, forms which had been pre-conceived, and 
thus depict the involutions and inventions of the mind. There is nothing new in this 
general principle of depicting objects, whether it be done by pigments, or represented 
in the solid realities of wood or stone. The mind itself, so far as related to its natural 
powers, was as fully endowed with the power of induction and analogy in the first, as 
in the last ages; and those are quite mistaken, who, with respect to the common arts 
and wants of life, suppose that the earlier ages were lacking in ingenuity. Industrial 
labors were performed with far more perfection at an early day than is generally 
supposed, as all must admit who have searched into the history and antiquity of 
cutting gems, of mosaics, pottery, metallurgy, and other early-noticed arts. How far 
representations by pictures and figures kept pace with inventions, we are left in a 
great measure to infer. We only perceive that some of the elements of a pictorial 
system were very ancient. Idolatry itself had its rise in this system, and it is only 
from the denunciations on this head, contained in the Scriptures, that we are histori- 


842 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


cally apprized of the early existence of the art, both in its form of images and of 
symbolic devices. 

One of the most obvious devices of the primitive ages, in picture-writing, would 
appear to bave been to leave a personal device or mark, to stand as the sign of a 
name; and hence we see that seals and “signets” were used long before letters. 1 To 
mark public transactions, heaps of stones were erected. This was probably the type 
and origin of the rage for pyramids, to which the early nations so long directed their 
efforts, and by which they sought to perpetuate their fame and the memory of their 
power. It is owing, indeed, to this trait of raising massive structures of earth and stone, 
towering to the skies, that we owe the preservation of our best and most ancient 
evidences of the pictorial, hieroglyphic, and inscriptive arts. Traces of these arts are 
found on the oldest existing monuments in the world. Outlines of animals, and 
things rudely drawn, are yet to be seen on the bricks of Babylon. The valley of the 
Nile is replete with evidences of the more advanced stages of this art, in which the 
simple pictorial gave way to the true hieroglyphic, and finally to the phonetic. 
Among the most ancient forms of inscription, which are now proved to have been 
provided with an alphabetic key, the ancient arrow-headed character of Persia may 
be adduced. German research has mastered, so far as the subject permits, the inscrip¬ 
tions of the Mokah-Wadey, near Mount Sinai. Important advances have been made 
in the recovery of the Etruscan language and alphabet. The gradation between a 
heap of stones, a barrow, a mound, a teocalli, and a pyramid, are not more marked as 
connected links in the rise of architecture, than are a representative figure, an ideo¬ 
graphic symbol, a phonetic sign, and an alphabetical symbol, in the onward train of 
letters. 

But however symbols and figures may have connected their existence with the early 
monuments of mankind, there is no branch of the representative or pictorial art in 
which they led to such deplorable moral results, as in the form and expression which 
these figures anciently gave to idolatry. If letters may be called the language of 
Christianity, picture-writing is emphatically the language of idolatry. It filled the 
human mind with gross material objects of veneration. It put the shadow for the 
substance; and having given distinct form to the idea of a deity, the devotee was not 
long in attributing to the form all power and honor that pertained to the deity itself. 
Every class of nature put in its claims as the representative of God; and it is no 
wonder that a calf, a plant, an insect, a bird, and other images were employed. Two 
of the most ancient forms of this kind are found in the following representations of 
Baal, and the Egyptian Fly-God, both of which are taken from ancient coins. (See 
Plate 66, Figures 3 and 5.) 

Man had but just emerged from the hands of his Creator — he had scarcely passed 


1 Genesis. 




Plate 66 











































* 





■ 















. 

































































. 





* 


























































































































































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


343 


from bis early pastoral seats, when be began to materialize tbe divine idea. What 
he could not see, eye to eye, he did not long believe. Symbols and images were sub¬ 
stituted, and filled the Pagan world. All knowledge of the true God was forgotten. 
And God found himself in a position requiring a new revelation of himself to men. 
Is there any better proof that idolatry had filled the world and corrupted the race ? In 
this declension what agent can we name so powerful in its influences as the rude symbols 
. and images of antiquity ? That the art thus became, very early, one of the chief 
means of propagating idolatry, we may infer from the solemn prohibition of it in the 
decalogue. The early employments and amusements of mankind,— perhaps the very 
circumstances of the fine climate, soil, and spontaneous productions of the latitudes of 
the human family, led them to the adoption of gross material habits of thinking. 
Accustomed only to see and hear the great phenomena of the elemental world, they 
pictured out the fancied forms of the supernatural power under a thousand shapes. 
Infinity itself was soon the only limit to those fanciful creations. Every class of 
priests and magii formed a god of its own. Nor were they limited to gods of a 
general character. 

Not satisfied with fixing the exhibition of divine power in the image of an ox, an 
ibis, or a cat, the oriental nations at once assigned to its operations a locality; and 
thus every nation and every country was furnished with a local god, and each country 
with its own god. How absorbing, degrading, and mentally besotting this idea 
became—how completely it took away from the Creator the ascription of power to 
himself, while it placed it in material or brutal objects, and thus destroyed the 
responsibility of man to his Maker, the tremendous denunciations of Sinai may satis¬ 
factorily serve to explain. We allude to this passage in the Pentateuch, as the only 
authentic historical proof of so early a date. But it is corroborated by the universality 
of the practice, as proved by ancient monuments, and as traced among barbarous 
tribes, at the present day. If all Asia and all Africa were overrun by it, so was all 
America when first discovered. And in every place where the art exists, between 
the Arctic and Antarctic poles, we see it employed agreeably to the ancient notions; 
not to sustain and uphold, but to undermine and destroy the true idea of the Divinity. 

It is thus perceived, that the mode of communicating ideas, by the use of symbols 
of some sort, and with a more or less degree of perfection, was an early and a common 
trait of the human race. Alphabetic characters, it is thought, were known in Asia 
about 3317 years before the discovery of America. We must assign much of the 
prior era of the world to picture-writing and hieroglyphics. It is proposed to inquire 
how far, and to what extent, the pictographic art was known to, or practised by, the 
American tribes. 

Idle, indeed, would be the attempt, at this day, to look for the origin of the 
American race in any other generic quarter than the eastern continent. When they 
came hither ? how they came ? and why they came ? have been vainly inquired. But 


344 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


we may, it is conceived, employ the pictorial art to aid in denoting internationalism. 
If we take the invention of letters, as the era of their departure from the East, either 
with its Egyptian or Grecian date, the Red Man came hither before this era, or, 
at least, before his ancestors were participants in the knowledge. Letters were used 
about 1822 to 2000 years before the Christian era. As he brought no such 
knowledge, it is inferable that he departed before that era. But he had the pictorial 
system—he could inscribe figures and devices, in various ways, and this at least, is 
known, that he early developed the art in the Aztec race, and carried it to its 
utmost perfection. 

In what respects, we may inquire, was this ancient Toltecan art superior to, or 
different from, the pictography of the United States’ tribes? Both are ideographic. 
Both are mnemonic to a large extent. Both appeal strongly to the power of the 
association of ideas by symbols. Both require interpretation by the system of 
ideography. Neither presents a method for the preservation of sounds. Proper 
names of men and animals are preserved by representative figures and drawings, and 
may be recalled so long as the language itself is not extinct. 

With respect to the North American pictography, it may be inquired, is it universal, 
or confined to particular tribes ? 

What is the character of these devices, compared with analogous inscriptions, 
among the Mongolian and the wild Tartar, and the Nomadic races of Asia, and other 
parts of the globe ? Are they mere representative symbols, or hieroglyphics ? Is 
there more than one kind of ideographic device, or do the Indian priests and the 
common people use the same ? Are there any characters that may be deemed 
hieratic ? If the native jossakeeds, or medicine-men, use a more mystical method, in 
recording their songs, or arts, how is this denoted ? Finally, is there sufficient fixity 
and uniformity in the application and connection of the symbols, among our forest 
tribes, to permit the system to be explained ? 

It will be evident, from these suggestions, that a new, and hitherto untrodden field 
of inquiry, with respect to these tribes, is hereby opened. The early history of the 
race is such a blank—we are, in truth, so completely at a loss, for anything of 
a satisfactory character reaching beyond the close of the 15th century, that it 
behooves us, in the spirit of cautious research, to scrutinize every possible source of 
information. The oblivion of centuries rests upon this branch of the human family. 
By their physical traits they are clearly identified with some of the ancient leading 
stocks of Asia. But they appear to have broken off, and found their way hither, 
before the dawn of authentic profane history, 1 probably, as we have indicated, before 
the invention of letters. A few incidental notices in the early annals of Grecian 
literature, are all that remain, of ancient tradition, prior to Herodotus, to denote the 


1 The era of Herodotus is 413 B. C. 





CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


345 


probability of such a separation, at a remote epoch. But is this obscurity destined to 
be perpetual ? Can it not, at least, be mitigated by a study of this ante-alphabetic 
branch of their antiquities ? Are there no strong and undeniable coincidences, which 
are recorded in these pictographic symbols, between the mythology of the eastern and 
western hemispheres ? Is there not, at least, an identity in the mode of recording 
idolatrous belief? 

Are we prepared to conclude that the examination of their monumental ruins, in 
both divisions of the continent, does not furnish satisfactory evidences of identity in the 
general character of some elements of their astronomical knowledge, arithmetic, and 
geometry, as shadowed out in the Toltec and Aztec race ? So in their physiology and 
cast of mind we perceive very striking points of similarity, from south to north, not 
only in their personal generic features and external traits, but also in proportion as we 
scrutinize the facts, in the mental habits and the intellectual structure of the Red Men 
of Asia and America. There is, in both, a well-developed cast of character, which is 
oriental, relates to the early seat of human origin, and cannot be referred to the secon¬ 
dary and re-produced stocks of Europe. There is nothing in the manner in which 
this race met and opposed the early colonists, or have, subsequently, prepared to 
encounter their fate, which admits a serious comparison with the purpose, forecast, 
and perseverance, which mark the Magyer, or any variety of the man of Europe. We 
must look to another quarter of the globe for our points of mental affiliation. 

One of the hitherto unused evidences of this has been brought to our notice, as we 
apprehend, in the specimens submitted in 1825, and in 1839, of their oral imagi¬ 
native propensities and lodge lore, consisting of extravagant fictions, which reveals 
itself in their domestic oral tales and legends. 1 We cannot be sure that, where 
there are so many points of similarity in the matters noticed, others may not be found, 
having still higher claims to attention. It is believed that there is, yet un-exhumed 
from their teocalli and simple cemeteries and isolated graves, objects of art and inge¬ 
nuity, containing evidences which will shed important light on the era, or eras, of 
their primary separation from the Asiatic continent, and the islands of Oceanica. If 
they brought to the western hemisphere the knowledge of observing the solar cycles, 
and of measuring their time and adjusting their year thereby, as discoveries in 
Mexico and Peru denote, it is hardly probable they were behind-hand in other 
attainments of the same epoch. How is it that they had a cycle of 60 years, or a 
double cycle of 120 years, corresponding to the Chinese ? How did the Mexicans 
adjust their year to exactly 365 days and 6 hours? We may, at least, suppose them 
to have been conversant with the ancient pictorial signs of the Zodiac, if not with the 
early Chinese mixed, or impure hieroglyphic, method of notation. 

But if oral fiction be a test of mind in barbarous nations, pictography appears to be 


44 


Vide Algic Researches. 




346 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


equally so. In order to fix a standard of comparison for the American ideographic 
symbols, it will he proper to advert to the state of these arts, as they existed in other 
parts of the globe, and particularly in Egypt — where hieroglyphic literature was so 
extensively cultivated, and brought to a high degree of perfection, at an early epoch, 
and before the invention of letters. Letters, if we take the ordinary chronological 
accounts, were invented in Egypt, in 1822, B. C. This is assuming the truth of their 
discovery by Memnon, and places the event 831 years before the era of the Exodus. 
As two systems of recording ideas, of very different merit and principles, cannot be 
supposed to have existed long together, in a state of equal prosperity, but the better 
would absorb and supplant the poorer, it may be affirmed that hieroglyphics began to 
decline for many centuries before the Christian era. This, at least, is certain, that 
Moses, say in the year 1491 B. C., was well versed in the use of an alphabet of sixteen 
consonants, so that he recorded, as with the “pen of a ready writer,” the events 
which we ascribe to him. Theological critics have denied that the use of letters can 
be traced to an earlier date : J others contend for the elder theory of an uninspired in¬ 
vention. 

Egypt was the great theatre of the hieroglyphic art; but it was an art destined to 
be forgotten. As if the physical darkness which once shrouded it at noon-day had 
been a type of its subsequent intellectual and moral degradation, the very knowledge 
of the system that once recorded thoughts in hieroglyphic language was obliterated 
for fifteen centuries. Letters, if they existed in Egypt at this epoch, appear to have 
taken their flight with the Hebrews. Knowledge was destined to be, in the end, 
inseparable from revelation. And when, after the rest of the world was generally 
enlightened, the spirit of research returned, with the French expedition to Egypt, 
in 1798, to the valley of the Nile, it found a land covered with monuments of 
forgotten greatness, and a people sunk in depths of comparative ignorance. It is 
supposed the mode of hieroglyphic writing was not laid aside until the third century, 
A. D. An earlier opinion, generally affirms that the hieroglyphic enchorial characters 
had ceased to be employed after the Persian conquest of Cambyses, in 525 B. C. If 
the Egyptians, on the invasion of the French, were found to have substituted the Arabic 
alphabet in place of the phonetic-hieroglyphic, and installed Mahomet’s system in 
place of the ibis, the calf, and the cat, they had completely forgotten the event of 
this mutation in their literature, or that the phonetic symbols had ever been employed 
by them. The discovery was made by Europeans, and made alone through the per¬ 
petuating power of the Greek and Roman alphabet. 

The first travellers who went to Egypt, during the latter half of the eighteenth 
century, did little more than wonder. They told us of pyramids, and ruined cities, 
and monuments covered with hieroglyphics; but the latter remained unread. Yolney, 


1 See Dr. Spring’s Obligations to the Bible. 



CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


347 


Pococke, Clarke, and Bruce, imparted no other information. Kircher, who undertook 
it, in a work of elaborate pretence, wrote a hieroglyphic romance. It has long been 
condemned. The first traveller of a different stamp was Belzoni. But it is not my 
design to recite, in detail, the discoveries of the most distinguished visitors to the 
banks of the Nile. It remained for the scientific corps who attended Bonaparte in 
his invasion of Egypt, to take the first steps, and prepare the way for the present 
discoveries. Amongst the monuments which were figured in “ Denon’s Description 
of Egypt,” was the Rosetta stone. This fragment, which I examined in the British 
Museum in 1842, was dug up on the hanks of the Nile by the French, in erecting a 
fort, in 1799. It is a sculptured mass of black basalt, bearing trilingual inscriptions 
in the hieroglyphic, the demotic, and the ancient Greek characters. Copies of it 
were multiplied, and spread before the scientific minds of England and the Continent, 
for about twenty years before the respective inscriptions were satisfactorily read. It 
would transcend my purpose to give the details of the history of its interpretation; 
hut as it has furnished the key to the subsequent discoveries, and serves to denote 
the patience with which labors of this kind are to be met, a brief notice of the subject 
will be added. The Greek inscription, which is the lowermost in position, and, like 
the others, imperfect, was the first made out by the labors of Dr. Heyne of Germany, 
Professor Porson of London, and by the members of the French Institute. They, at 
the same time, demonstrated it to he a translation. 

The chief attention of the inquirers was next directed to the middle inscription, 
which is the most entire, and consists of the demotic, or enchorial character. The 
first advance was made by De Lacy, in 1802, who found, in the groups of proper 
names, those of Ptolemy, Arsinoe, and others. This was more satisfactorily demon¬ 
strated by Dr. Young, in 1814, when he published the result of his labors on the 
demotic text. These labors were further extended, and brought forward in separate 
papers, published by him in 1818 and 1819, in which he is believed to have shed 
the earliest beam of true light on the mode of annotation. He was not able, how¬ 
ever, to apply his principles fully, or at least without error, from an opinion that a 
syllabic principle pervaded the system. He carried his interpretations, however, 
much beyond the decyphering of the proper names. It was the idea of this com¬ 
pound character of the phonetic hieroglyphics, that proved the only bar to his full 
and complete success; an opinion to which he adhered in 1823, in a paper in which 
he maintains, that the Egyptians did not make use of an alphabet to represent 
elementary sounds and their connection, prior to the era of the Grecian and Roman 
domination. Champollion the Younger, himself entertained very much the same 
opinion, so far, at least, as relates to the phonetic signs, in 1812. In 1814, in his 
«Egypt under the Pharaohs,” he first expresses a different opinion, and throws out 
the hope, that “ sounds of language and the expressions of thought,” would yet he 
disclosed under the garb of “ material pictures.” This was, indeed, the germ in the 


348 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


thought-work of the real discovery, which he announced to the Royal Academy of 
Belles Letters at Paris, in September, 1822. By this discovery, of which Dr. Young 
claims priority, in determining the first nine symbols, a new link is added in the 
communication of thought by signs, which connects picture and alphabet writing. 
Phonetic hieroglyphics, as thus disclosed, consist of symbols representing the sounds 
of first letters of words. These symbols have this peculiarity, and are restricted to 
this precise use : that while they depict the ideas of whole objects, as birds, &c., they 
represent only the alphabetic value of the initial letter of the name of these objects. 
Thus the picture may, to give an example in English, denote a man, an ox, an eagle, 
or a lotus; but their alphabetical value, if these be the words inscribed on a column, 
would be respectively, the letters M. 0. E. L. These are the phonetic signs, or equi¬ 
valents for the words. It is evident that an inscription could thus be made, with 
considerable precision, but not unerring exactitude, and it is by the discovery of this 
key, that so much light has been, within late years, evolved from the Egyptian 
monuments. 

It may be useful, in this connection, to bear in mind two facts, namely, that the 
discovery aims at greater accuracy and precision, than it has attained; and that, the 
result, striking and brilliant as it confessedly is, is the accumulation of the patient 
research of many years, and a plurality of intellects. Without the accidental dis¬ 
covery of the Rosetta stone, containing the trilingual inscription, it is doubtful 
whether the system would have ever been guessed at. And here is one, and we 
think by far the greatest benefit, which the world owes to the French invasion of 
Egypt. It has been seen, that the first step to an interpretation, was the detection 
of the proper names, as disclosed by the Greek copy, coupled with the linguistical 
conclusion arrived at by Heyne. Scholars perceived that this Greek text must be a 
“ translation.” This hint gave the impulse to research. What was translated must 
necessarily have had an original. 

The next step was taken by Quatremere, who proved the present Coptic to be 
identical with the ancient Egyptian. To find this language, then, recorded in the 
hieroglyphics, was the great object. It is here that the younger Champollion exer¬ 
cised his power of definition and comparison. By the pre-conception of a phonetic 
hieroglyphical alphabet, as above denoted, he had grasped the truth, which yet lay 
concealed, and he labored at it until he verified his conceptions. It is thus that a 
theory gives energy to research; nor is there much hope of success without one, in 
the investigation of the unknown. Columbus had never reached America, without a 
theory. Nor did this investigation want the additional stimulus of rivalry. The 
discoveries of Dr. Young, and the injudicious criticisms and wholesale praises of the 
British press, (particularly the London Quarterly,) of his papers on the hieroglyphic 
literature of Egypt, were calculated to arouse in France and Germany a double feeling 
of rivalry. It was not only a question between the respective archaeological merits 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


349 


of Dr. Young and M. Champollion; it was also a question of national pride between 
England, France, and Germany. And, for the first time in their fierce and sanguinary 
history, hieroglyphics were the missives wielded. Victory decided in favor of Cham¬ 
pollion, as displayed in the triumph of the pure phonetic method elucidated in his 
“ Pr6cis du systeme hieroglyphiques des anciens Egyptiens,” published in 1824. 

It is a striking feature in hieroglyphical phonetic writing, and the great cause of 
imprecision, that its signs are multiform, often arbitrary, and must be constantly 
interpreted, not only with an entire familiarity with the language of the people 
employing them, but with their customs, habits, arts, manners, and history. All who 
have studied the Egyptian hieroglyphic literature, have experienced this. The num¬ 
ber of phonetic synonyms, or homophanous signs, in the phonetic alphabet, has been 
increased, at the last dates, to 864. Of this number^ 120 are devoted to the human 
figure, in various positions, and 60 to separate parts of the body. 10 represent celes¬ 
tial bodies; 24, wild, and 10, domestic quadrupeds; 22, limbs of animals; 50, birds 
and parts of birds; 10, fishes; 30, reptiles, and portions of reptiles; 14, insects; 60, 
vegetables, plants, flowers, and fruits; 50, fantastic, arbitrary forms; and the remain¬ 
ing 404, artificial objects. Nor is it supposed that this is the full extent of the 
phonetic signs. 

Homophons have been added to the list by every new discoverer, and the best 
results which are now predicted for the alphabet, denote that the round number of 
900 is expected to comprise all the various signs. Where an alphabet is so diffuse, 
there must be danger of error and imprecision. We do not fall in with the too- 
sweeping conclusions of some erudite critics, against the general value of the princi¬ 
ples and results; which, however, must be received with abatements. It is sufficient 
to bear in mind, as a reason for caution, that the interpretations of different minds 
vary; and that Rossolini and Champollion did not coincide. There is a manifest 
tendency, at the present day, to over-estimate the civilization, learning, and philosophy 
of the Egyptians and Persians in these departments, chiefly from hieroglyphic and 
pictorial records. If I mistake not, we are in some danger of falling into this error, 
on this side of the water, in relation to the character of the ancient Mexican civiliza¬ 
tion. The impulsive glow of one of our most chaste and eloquent historians, gives 
this natural tendency to our conceptions. The Aztec semi-civilization was an indus¬ 
trial civilization; the giving up of hunting and roving for agriculture and fixed 
dwellings. But we must not mistake it. They built teocalli, temples, palaces, and 
gardens; but the people lived in mere huts. They were still debased. Woman was 
dreadfully so. The mind of the Aztecs, while the hand had obtained skill and 
industry, was still barbaric. The horrific character of their religion made it impos¬ 
sible it should be otherwise. Civilization had but little affected the intellect, the 
morals not at all. They commemorated events by the striking system of picture¬ 
writing ; but there is strong reason to suspect, since examining the principles of the 


350 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


North American system, as practised by our medas and jossakeeds, that the Mexican 
manuscripts were also constructed on the mnemonic principle, and always owed much 
of their value and precision to the memory of the trained writers and painters. If 
these occupied, before the law-chiefs of Montezuma, the relative position of clerks of 
courts and recorders, as some of the picture-writings preserved by Hackluyt denote, 
these interpreters of the national rolls relied greatly on memory. Conventional signs 
had done much, but the painted record still required these verbal explanations which 
a knowledge of the system only could supply. 


3. Elements of the Pictorial System. 

The Toltec and Aztec system of Picture-Writing, compared with the North American;—its 
general agreement — its peculiar traits and common figurative system of the United 
States Tribes.— Devices from a Tree on the Mamakagon River, Wisconsin.—Drawing from 
the Upper Mississippi, denoting a Peace-Mission.— Signs drawn on Grave-Posts.— Sepulchral 
honors of the Chiefs Wabojeeg, and Babasekundabee. 

There has been no explanation of the Mexican system of Picture-Writing, by 
which it can be understood as a system, if we except the mode of distinguishing the 
day, the division of the cycle called Tlalpilli, and the cycle itself. By the devices 
for what may be designated the surnames of families or clans, which our United 
States tribes call Totems, the names of reigning caciques and dynasties were also 
preserved. Figurative or representative signs described events. The drowning of 
distinguished men was represented by a boat upsetting on the water. Maces, arrows, 
flowers, quadrupeds, birds, and other animate and inanimate objects, were employed 
as symbols. Compartments and colors gave uniformity and attraction to the series of 
signs, many of which were derived from their fine tropical vegetation and phenomena. 
In this respect, and in the mode of denoting chronology, the Mexican picture-writing 
was in advance of the ruder form of our pictography. The latter is exclusively 
ideographic—consisting of a series of signs for whole ideas and sentences—the chief 
or turning words of which are typified, as affording aid to the memory. The signs 
are drawn from every department of nature — from the earth, the waters, and the 
atmosphere. With a spiritual agency—a subtle polytheism pervading all space, these 
signs are supposed to effect and maintain relations to these objects of a mysterious 
and miraculous character. A hunter has selected his personal spirit or manito from 
the animal creation, and whenever he encounters that object, be it bird or beast, in 
the forest, he regards it in the light of a protector, or harbinger of luck. Even its 
tracks, if it be a quadruped, or its flight, if it be a bird, are sufficient to animate his 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


351 


highest hopes or fears. A meta or priest, and a jossakeed, or a medical man, believes 
himself to have triumphed by his skill, and is desirous, by his figurative or representa¬ 
tive signs, to perpetuate the knowledge of his success among his countrymen. Fame 
is as powerful a motive to him as to the man of science, letters, or religion, in civil 
life. He believes in the truth and efficacy of his system of polytheism, of spirit- 
power, of incantations, of medical magic, of mythology, of his wild forest religion. 
And that the observance of these rites, offerings, and ceremonies, in each department, 
is indissolubly connected with the issues of life and death. Stronger motives civiliza¬ 
tion and Christian hope could not supply. This will denote the faith with which he 
practises his pictography. For their pictographic devices the North American Indians 
have two terms, namely, Kekeewin, or such things as are generally understood by the 
tribe; and Kekeenowin, or teachings of the medas or priests, and jossakeeds or prophets. 
The knowledge of the latter is chiefly confined to persons who are versed in their 
system of magic medicine, or their religion, and may be deemed hieratic. The former 
consists of the common figurative signs, such as are employed at places of sepulture, 
or by hunting or travelling parties. It is also employed in the muzzindbiks, or rock- 
writings. Many of the figures are common to both, and are seen in the drawings 
generally; but it is to be understood that this results from the figure-alphabet being 
precisely the same in both, while the devices of the nugamoons, or medicine, wabino, 
hunting, and war songs, are known solely to the initiates who have learned them, 
and who always pay high to the native professors for this knowledge. Shawunipenais, 
or the South-bird, a member of the Chippewa tribe, told me, (after he had become a 
member of the Baptist Church,) that he had paid exorbitant prices,— such as a gun 
for a song, in learning the magical hunting songs. They were taught to him from 
the devices on scrolls of bark. He added, that he had been a long time in learning 
them; that the information was communicated secretly; and that, whenever he 
had mastered the songs, which contained mysterious allusions, he fully understood, 
and could draw the devices. 

The subjects to which the North American Indian applies his pictographic skill, 
may be regarded as follows, namely : 


1. Kekeewin. 

A. Common signs.Travelling. 

B. Adjidatigwun.Sepulture. 

2. Kekeenowin. 

C. Medawin.Medicine. 

D. Minor Jesukawin.Necromancy. 

E. Wabino.Revelry. 

F. Keossawin.Hunting. 







352 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


G. Higher Jesukawin.Prophecy. 

H. Nundobewunewun.War. 

I. Sage&win.. Love. 

K. Muzzinabikon.History. 

Some observations on each of these topics may be made. 

1. Common Kekeewin, or Mode of Writing by Representative 
and Symbolical Pictures. 

A. The following pictograph is transcribed from the sides of a blazed tree, of the 
species Pinus resinosa, found on the banks of the Namakagun, a tributary of the 
River St. Croix, of the Upper Mississippi, at a spot where I landed in the month of 
August, 1831. (See A, Plate 49.) 

The purport, as explained by an interpreter well versed in both this art and the 
language and customs of the Chippewas, may be given in few words. Figure 3, on 
the right, is the totem of a hunter, who had encamped at that spot. It represents a 
fabulous animal, called the copper-tailed bear. The two parallel lines beneath it, 
(figure 4,) curved at each end, represent the hunter’s canoe. The next sign, (figure 1,) 
on the same side, below, is the totem of his companion, the mizi, or cat-fish, the 
parallel lines beneath (figure 2) also representing his canoe. The upper figure, 5, 
on the left, represents the common black bear; the six lower devices, figures 6, 7, 8, 
9, 10, and 11, denote six fish of the cat-fish species. The interpretation is this : The 
two hunters, whose totems were cat-fish and copper-tailed bear, while encamped at 
the spot, killed a bear, and captured the expressed number of cat-fish in the river. 
The record was designed to convey this piece of information to their people and kins¬ 
folk who should pass the locality. The state of society among them rendered such 
information interesting; it was as much so to them, perhaps, as the generality of the 
information of a personal character which is circulated by our diurnal press; and the 
fact of the record itself may be regarded as a proof that the system of the Kekeewin 
was generally understood. 

The scroll containing this inscription (See A, Plate 48,) was obtained above St. 
Anthony’s Falls, on a public expedition in 1820, which has been alluded to in a prior 
place. It consisted of white birch bark, and the figures had been carefully drawn. 
Number 1, denotes the flag of the Union; Number 2, the cantonment, then recently 
established at Cold Spring, on the western side of the cliffs, above the influx of the 
St. Peters. Number 4 is the symbol of the commanding officer, (Colonel H. Leaven¬ 
worth,) under whose authority a mission of peace had been sent into the Chippewa 
country. Number 11 is the symbol of Chakope, or the /Six, the leading Sioux chief, 
under whose orders the party moved. Number 8 is the second chief, called Wabeda- 
tunka, or the Black Dog. The symbol of his name is Number 10. He has 14 lodges. 






INSCRIPTION ON A TREE OF THE SPECIES P1NUS RESINOSA ON THE 
NAMAKAXGON RIVER, TRIBUTARY OF THE ST. CROIX. 









TUTELAR SPIRITS OP CHUSCO. THE PROPHET OF MIC HILIMACKINAC _ 

Lilh Printed &Col 4 WJ.TBowcn,Flul. 


by Capf S.Eastman U S A . 































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


353 


Captain Douglas, who had begun the study of this “ bark-letter,” as it was called, 
thought this symbol denoted his descent from Chakope. Number 7 is a chief, subor¬ 
dinate to Chakope, with 13 lodges, and a bale of goods (Number 9), which was 
devoted, by the public, to the objects of the peace. The name of Number 6, whose 
wigwam is Number 5, with 13 subordinate lodges, was not given. The frame, or 
crossed poles of the entire 50 lodges composing this party, had been left standing on 
the high, open prairie on the west bank of the Mississippi, above Sauk River, and 
immediately opposite the point of Hornblende Rocks, which the French call the 
Two Rocks. A high pole, split so as to receive the scroll, was placed at the head of 
the camp, conspicuous to all who should pass; and its sight actually produced a shout 
from Babesacundabe and a delegation of Chippewas, who accompanied him on an 
errand of peace from the sources of the Mississippi. 

To these examples of the use of pictographic writing to subserve the purpose of 
information, in travelling and in hunting, I add the following pictograph respecting 
known historical events. It was transcribed from a tree on the banks of the Mus¬ 
kingum River, Ohio, about 1780. 1 The bark of the tree had been removed about 
twelve inches square, to admit the inscription. The characters were drawn with 
charcoal and bear’s oil. (See B, Plate 47.) 

It is known, historically, that, after the conquest of Canada, 1758-59, the western 
Indians, who adhered to the French interest, formed an extensive confederacy for 
retaking, simultaneously, all the military posts west of the Alleghanies. This con¬ 
federacy, which was headed by the celebrated chief Pontiac, was so well ordered and 
planned that nine out of the twelve small stockaded garrisons, held by the English 
troops, were actually surprised and taken; and they were only resisted by the superior 
works of Pittsburg and Detroit. It was not till the year 1763-64 that these formidable 
disturbances were quelled, and the authority of the British crown finally established 
among the dissatisfied tribes. 

The inscription relates to these events. It depicts the part borne in this confederate 
war by the Delawares of the Muskingum, under the conduct of the noted chief 
Wingenund. 

Number 1 represents the eldest and main branch of the Delaware tribe, by its 
ancient symbol, the tortoise. 

Number 2 is the totem, or armorial badge of Wingenund, denoting him to be the 
actor. 

Number 3 is the sun. The ten horizontal strokes beneath it denote the number of 
war-parties in which this chief had participated. 

Number 4 are men’s scalps. 


1 Archaeologia, or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity; published by the Society of Antiquarians of 
London, Yol. vi., 1782, page 159. 

45 





854 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Number 5, women’s scalps. 

Number 6, male prisoners. 

Number 7, female prisoners. 

Number 8, a small fort situated on the banks of Lake Erie, which was taken by the 
Indians in 1762, by a surprise. 

Number 9 represents the fort at Detroit, which, in 1763, resisted a siege of three 
months, under the command of Major Gladwyn. 

Number 10 is Fort Pitt, denoted by its striking position on the extreme point of 
land at the confluence of the Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers. 

Number 11 denotes the incipient town near it. The eleven crosses or figures, 
arranged below the tortoise, denote the number of persons who w r ere either killed or 
taken prisoners by this chief. The prisoners are distinguished from the slain by the 
figure of a ball or circle above the cross-figure denoting a head. Those devices with¬ 
out this circle are symbols of the slain. But four, out of the eleven, appear to have 
been women, and of these, two were retained as prisoners. It appears that but two 
of the six men were led into captivity. The twenty-three nearly vertical strokes, at 
the foot of the inscription, indicate the strength of the chieftain’s party. The inclina¬ 
tion denotes the course they marched to reach the scene of conflict. This course, in 
the actual position of the tribe, and of the side of the tree chosen to depict it, was 
northward. As one of the evidences which show the order and exactitude of these 
rude memorials in recording facts, it is to be observed that the number of persons 
captured or killed, in each expedition of the- chief, is set on the left of the picture, 
exactly opposite the symbolical mark of the expedition. Thus, in his first war-party, 
he took nothing; in the second, he killed one man, and took his scalp — the sign is 
ideographic of one; in the third, he killed a male and female, and took a female 
prisoner; in the fourth, he took a male prisoner; the fifth, he accomplished nothing ; 
the sixth, he took a male prisoner. Between this and his next expedition some years 
elapsed, as denoted by the space. In the seventh, he took a female prisoner; the 
eighth, he killed a man; the ninth, a woman; the tenth, a man. 

Here is a large amount of information conveyed by 51 symbolic or representative 
characters. Its interpretation is due to a fellow-tribesman of the successful warrior; 
the noted Delaware chief, Captain White Eyes, who was acquainted with the circum¬ 
stances, knew Wingenund, had participated in the incidents of the war, and was well 
versed in this mode of pictorial writing. 

These facts have been brought forward, as denoting a starting point in the 
inquiry. 

B. Adjedatigwun. 1 The veneration of the Indian tribes for their dead, is well 


1 The import of the thought of this term is given by the expression, death-stick. It is derived from the verb 
adjidj, to reverse, meaning that the totem of the person interred is reversed. As this totem is the symbol of 







CHARACTER OE THE INDIAN RACE. 


855 


known. Piety and affection, respect and remembrance, may have more costly and 
splendid modes of obituary exhibition in civilized life ; but it is questionable if there 
be more sincerity, more true regret, more unaffected sorrow, than there is often found 
among esteemed individuals of these simple bands. And if there be anything sacred, 
in a life of so much change, vicissitude, and temptation to degradation, as they have 
suffered, it is a sentiment of veneration for their dead. This is a public sentiment, 
which has often been evinced, and is known to have had force when they have parted 
with every species of landed possession, and even territory containing the last cher¬ 
ished spot of their simple sepulture. In such circumstances they have uniformly 
solicited much regard, and an undisturbed repose, for the bones of their dead. One 
of the great merits ascribed by the modern Indians to the era of the French suprem¬ 
acy in the land is, that Frenchmen never disturbed the places of their dead. * 1 The 
cemeteries of the Indian dead were always placed in the choicest scenic situations 
their vicinage afforded; — on some crowning hill, or gentle eminence in a secluded 
valley. Airy or sylvan sites were always selected. Their taste in this respect has 
often been noticed and admired. They were deficient in mechanical skill, in wood 
and stone, but they have rarely been exceeded, perhaps never, by erratic tribes, in 
the kind care and decent enwrapment and interment of their deceased. Nothing that 
the dead possessed has ever been deemed too valuable to be interred with the body. 
The most costly dress, arms, ornaments, and implements, are deposited in the grave. 
Where the low state of these arts permitted no architectural display in their simple 
tombs and bark-cenotaphs, nothing was more natural than that they should heap piles 
of earth over the remains. In this, manner, the spot could be marked and kept in 
remembrance long after their frail memorials of wood and bark, with their pictorial 
devices, had perished. This, it is thought, was the origin and cause of by far the 
largest number of the mounds and barrows which extend over so large an area of the 
western country, and which have been, from time to time, the subject of much, and 
(may we not add ?) some very fanciful observation. That religious rites should connect 
themselves with these rude mausoleii, and be offered on their summits, was a not less 
natural than simple process, among such a people. It cannot be a subject of wonder, 
that, without a revelation of the “ more perfect way” spoken of by the Apostle, these 
tribes should convert the altars of remembrance of their dead into altars of propitiation 
for the prosperity of the living. The most pertinent point of the inquiry here is, 
whether, in their efforts to perpetuate the memory of the name and acts of the dead, 

the person, the ideographic import is, that the deceased has been returned to the earth. Atig is the noun in 
this compound, denoting a tree, stick, board, or post. The termination in wun, is the plural. 

The stick, or tabular piece of wood set at the head of a grave, is also sometimes .called annameawin, or ■prayer- 
stick, a term which has been in use only since the introduction of Christianity. This term is applied only to 
the cross. 

1 Historical and Scientific Sketches of Michigan. Detroit, 1834, 1 vol. pp. 65. 





356 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


they may not in some cases have inscribed their “hieroglyphics” (as they are impro¬ 
perly called) and figures upon them. 

The most common and simple mode of the disposition of a dead body among these 
tribes, was, after wrapping it in the best garments, to inclose it, with every adjunct 
memorial, in outer wrappers of skins and bark, and, if possible, a wooden shell, variously 
made, and thus to inter it. Among the Sioux and western Chippewas, after the body 
has been wrapped in its best clothes and ornaments, it is then placed on a scaffold, or 
in a tree, where it remains until the flesh is entirely decayed ; after which the bones 
are buried, and the grave-posts fixed. At the head of the grave a tabular piece of 
cedar, or other wood, called the adjedatig, is set. This grave-board contains the 
symbolic or representative figures which record, if it be a warrior, his totem; that is 
to say, the symbol of his family, or surname, and such arithmetical or other devices 
as serve to denote how many times the deceased has been in war parties, and how 
many scalps he has taken from the enemy; two facts, from which his reputation is 
to be essentially derived. It is seldom that more is attempted in the way of inscrip¬ 
tion. Often, however, distinguished chiefs have their war-flag, or, in modern days, 
a small ensign of American fabric, displayed on a standard at the head of their graves, 
which is left to fly over the deceased till it is wasted by the elements. Scalps of their 
enemies, feathers of the bald or black eagle, the swallow-tailed falcon, or some carni¬ 
vorous bird, are also placed, in such instances, on the adjedatig, or suspended, with 
offerings of various kinds, on a separate staff. But the latter are super-additions of a 
religious character, and belong to the class of the ke-ke-wa-o-win-au-tig, (ante, Number 
4.) The building of a funeral fire on recent graves, is also a rite which belongs to the 
consideration of their religious faith. 

The following figures (Plate 50) will convey a just idea of this kind of pictographic 
record. 

Number 1 is the adjedatig of Wabojeeg, a celebrated war-chief and ruler of his tribe, 
who died on Lake Superior, about 1793. He was of the family or clan of the addik, 
or American reindeer. This fact is symbolized by the figure of the deer. The reverse 
position denotes death. His own personal name, which was the White Fisher, is not 
noticed. The seven transverse marks on the left denote that he had led seven war 
parties. The three perpendicular lines below the totem, represent three wounds 
received in battle. The figure of a moose’s head, relates to a desperate conflict with 
an enraged animal of this kind. The symbols of the arrow and pipe, are drawn to 
indicate his influence in war and peace. 

Number 2 is the record of a hunter of the Mukwau or bear clan, who had been a 
member of three separate war parties. 

Number 3 represents a chief who was of the tortoise totem, and has three marks of 
honor. The closed cross is here an emblem of death; the totem being drawn 
upright. 


Plate 50. 



Adceraaa Ii& 379 Broalway NTY 


Chiffnvv. 


Dacota. 


GRAVE POSTS, 























CHARACTER OE THE INDIAN RACE. 


357 


No. 4 is the record of a noted chief of the St. Mary’s band, called Shin-ga-ba-was-sin. 
or the Image-stone, who died on Lake Superior, in 1828. He was of the totem of the 
crane, which is alone figured. Six marks of honor are awarded to him on the right, 
and three on the left. The latter represent three important general treaties of peace 
which he had attended at various times. 1 Among the former marks are included his 
presence under Tecumseh, at the battle of Moraviantown, where he lost a brother. 

A few years ago, Ba-be-sa-kun-dib-a (man with curled hair), the ruling chief of 
Sandy Lake band, on the Upper Mississippi, died and was committed to his grave, 
after a long life of usefulness and honor. He was buried on a conspicuous elevation, 
on the east bank of the river, where his grave, and the ensign which waved over it, 
were conspicuous to all who navigated the stream. The following inscriptions, 
(Figure 5) and decorations, were set up. They are thus explained: 

The reversed bird denotes his family name, or clan, the crane. Four transverse 
lines above it, signify that he had killed four of his enemies in battle. This fact was 
declared, I was informed, by the funeral orator, at the time of his interment. At the 
same moment, the orator dedicated the ghosts of these four men, who had been killed 
by him in battle, and presented them to the deceased chief, to accompany him to the 
land of spirits. The four lines to the right, and four corresponding lines on the left 
of these central marks, represent eight eagles’ feathers, and are commemorative of his 
bravery. Eight marks, made across the edge of the inscription-board, signify that 
he had been a member of eight war parties. The nine transverse marks below the 
totem, signify that the orator who officiated at the funeral, and drew the inscription, 
had participated himself in nine war parties. 

Figure 6 is a grave-post of a Dacota. It was taken in a grove near Fort Snelling, 
about seven miles above the mouth of the St. Peters. The inscription denotes, that 
the deceased had killed, during his life, seven men, five women, and four children. 
The figures being represented without heads, signify that they were slain. 


* These treaties, and his attendance at them, are facts within my personal knowledge. They were held 
at Prairie du Chien in 1825, at Fond du Lac in 1826, and at Buttes des Morts, on Fox River, in 1827, 
all convened under the auspices of the American Government. 



358 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


4. Kekeenovin, or Hieratic Signs of the Medawin and 

Jeesukawin. 


Definition of the Terms and Principles of the Medawin and the Jeesukawin;— Their Influence on 
the general Incidents of Indian Society; — This Influence exerted by pictorial Signs; — 
Its Application through the Symbolical pictorial Signs of the Medawin ; — The division of the 
Latter, into the Pure, or Original Meda and the Wabeno; — Transcript of an Indian Music 
Board; — Songs and Incantations, depicted in Mnemonic Signs; — Examples of the Meda, 
Ke-kee-no-win, with their Interpretation. 


2. Kekeenowin. —This class of signs is devoted to the forest priesthood. 

There are two institutions among the North American Indians, which will he found 
to pervade the whole body of the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from 
the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, however the terms by which they are 
denoted differ, or the minor rites of the institutions themselves may be modified. 
They are called in the language from which we adopt most of the aboriginal terms 
in this treatise, the Medawin, and the Jeesukawin. In other terms, they are the art 
of medical magic, and of prophecy. Both are very ancient in their origin, and very 
generally diffused, practised, and believed in. It is impossible duly to consider the 
pictorial art as existing among them, without some prior notice of these leading and 
characteristic institutions. For, a very large proportion of both the simple represent¬ 
ative and symbolic signs they employ, derive their force and significancy from the 
relation they bear to these institutions. 

C. The term meda, 1 in Ottowa meta, is one of long standing in their vocabulary, 
although, as in many other words, its vowel sounds have probably undergone com¬ 
plete changes in ancient periods, while the consonants m and d have been interchanged 
according to the generally understood laws of human utterance. 2 Its original signifi¬ 
cance is obscured by its present application to medical influences, supposed to be 
exercised by certain mineral or animal matter, as small bits of metals, bones, feathers, 
and other objects kept in the arcanum of the sacred gush-ke-pe-ta-gun, or medicine- 
sack. But it is quite obvious that no physical application of these articles is even 
pretended by the operators, but that they rely wholly on a subtle, invisible, necro¬ 
mantic influence, to be exerted in secret, and at distant as well as contiguous points. 
The meda, or medawininee, is in all respects a magician. He is distinct from the 


1 The sound of the e, in this word, is long, as in me; of a, as heard in fate. 

2 To denote how these changes would affect the sound, the following modifications of the five vowels will 
suffice: first vowel sound, mata, meda, mida, moda, muda; second vowel sound, mata, mate, madi, mado, madu. 




CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


359 


musk eke wininee, or medical practitioner, who administers both liquid and dry medicines, 
bleeds, cups with a horn, and operates on ulcers, swellings, and fresh wounds. The 
latter takes his denomination from mus-ke-ke, a liquid dose. The former from meda, 
a mysterious principle. The one is a physician, the other a priest. Meda is clearly 
a verb, which is shown by its taking the inflection win, to form a substantive. To 
meda, is therefore to perform magic, to trick by magic. Medawin is the art of magic. 
Its professors are, simply and definitely, magii or magicians. Men who profess this 
art are formed into societies, or associations. They are admitted by a public cere¬ 
mony, after having been instructed in private, and given evidence of their skill or 
fitness. There is no order of descent. The thing is perfectly voluntary. Any one 
may become a follower and practiser of the meda. All that is necessary is to adduce 
proofs of his skill; but it results that none but those possessed of somewhat more 
than the ordinary shrewdness, art, or foresight, either assume or attain eminence in 
this art. 

D. The art of prophecy, or the Jeesukawin, differs from the med&win in its being 
practised alone, by distinct and solitary individuals, who have no associates; who at 
least do not -exist, and are never known as societies. Prophets start up at long 
intervals, and far apart, among the Indian tribes. They profess to be under super¬ 
natural power, and to be filled with a divine afflatus. It is, however, an art resem¬ 
bling that of the medawin, and founded on a similar principle of reliance, differing 
chiefly in the object sought. The meta seeks to propitiate events; the jossakeed aims 
to predict them. Both appeal to spirits for their power. Both exhibit material 
substances, as stuffed birds, bones, &c., as objects by or through which the secret 
energy is to be exercised. The general modes of operation are similar, but vary. 
The drum is used in both, but the songs and incantations differ. The rattle is con¬ 
fined to the ceremonies of the meda and the wabeno. The jossakeed addresses 
himself exclusively to the Great Spirit. 1 His office, and his mode of address, are 
regarded with greater solemnity and awe. His choruses are peculiar, and - deemed by 
the people to carry an air of higher reverence and devotion. 

To Jee-suk-a, is to prophesy. The word is a verb, and can be conjugated through 
the ordinary moods and tenses. The infinitive is converted into a substantive by 
adding the particle win. It is often prefixed to the word man, making the sense 
prophecy-man, a vulgar mode of using the principles of a very flexible transpositive 
language. The term, when thus compounded, is Jee-suk-a-win-in-ee. 

E. There is a third form, or rather a modification of the medawin, which I have 
just alluded to. It is the Wabeno; a term denoting a kind of midnight orgies, which 
is regarded as a corruption of the meda. Its rites and ceremonies will be particularly 


1 This, it will be recollected, is an indefinite phrase. It may equally mean the great Good, or great Bad 
Spirit. The latter must, as a general rule, bo inferred, when the term gezha is not prefixed. 





360 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


noticed hereafter. Sufficient, it is believed, has been advanced to show the influences 
which are exerted by these two leading institutions, on the general labors and 
exertions of the race, both in peace and war. How this influence is exerted through 
the art of figurative and symbolic signs and pictures, so as to be felt and understood 
in the remotest part of the tribe, will be perceived in the ensuing examples. 

C. Medawin, or To Meda : — To exhibit the power of the operator, or officiating 
priest, in the curative art, an elongated lodge is expressly erected from poles and 
foliage newly cut, and particularly prepared for this purpose. This work is done by 
assistants of the society, who obey specific directions, but are careful to exclude such 
species of wood or shrubbery as may be deemed detrimental to the patient. The 
highest importance is attached to this particular, as well as to other minor points, in 
the shape, position, or interior arrangements of the lodge. For to discover any over¬ 
sight of this kind after the ceremony is past, is a sufficient, and, generally, satisfactory 
cause of failure. When the lodge is prepared, the master of the ceremonies, who has 
been applied to by the relatives of a sick person, proceeds to it, taking his drum, 
rattles, and other instruments of his art. He is met by other members of the meda 
who have been invited to be present and participate in the rites. • Having gone 
through some of the preliminary ceremonies, and chanted some of the songs, the 
patient is introduced. If too weak to walk, the individual is carried in on a bed or 
pallet, and laid down in the designated position. The exactness and order which 
attend every movement, is one of its peculiarities. No one may enter who has not 
been invited, but spectators are permitted to look on from without. Having entered 
the arcanum, and all being seated, a mysterious silence is observed for some time. 
Importance is attached to the course of the winds, the state of the clouds, and other 
phenomena of the heavens; for it is to be observed that these ceremonies are conducted 
on open elevated places, and the lodge is built without a roof, so that the minutest 
changes can be observed. It is a fact worthy of notice, that attempts of the medas to 
heal the sick are only made when the patients have been given over, or failed to 
obtain relief from the muske-ke-win-in-ee, or physician. If success crown the effort, 
the bystanders are ready to attribute it to superhuman power; and if he fail, there is 
the less ground to marvel at it, and the friends are at least satisfied that they have 
done all in their power. And in this way private affection is soothed, and public 
opinion satisfied. Such are the feelings that operate in an Indian village. 

Admissions to the society of the Meda are always made in public, with every 
ceremonial demonstration. To prepare a candidate for admission, his chief reliance 
for success is upon his early dreams and fasts. If these bode good, he is induced to 
persevere in his preparations, and to make known to the leading men of the institu¬ 
tion, from time to time, the results. If these are approved, he is further prepared 
by resorting to the process of the steam-bath. In this situation he is met by older 
professors, who are in the habit of here exchanging objects of supposed magical or 


? 


> 














k 










* 

I 


\ 






Plate 51 



y 

l 


/ 



Drawn by Cap? S EastesciJ S.Amy. — - ;G DnnanIife379Br C aawajNY ■ 

Mi:DA SONGS 









































































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


361 


medicinal virtue. The candidate is further initiated in such prime secrets as are 
deemed infallible in the arts of healing or hunting, or resisting the power of enchant¬ 
ment or witchcraft in others. The latter is known, in common parlance, in the 
Indian country, as the power of throwing, or resisting the power to throw, bad 
medicine. 

I had observed the exhibitions of the Medawin, and the exactness and studious 
ceremony with which its rites were performed, in 1820, in the region of Lake Superior, 
and determined to avail myself of the advantages of my official position, in 1822, 
when I returned as a Government Agent for the tribes, to make further inquiries into 
its principles and mode of proceeding. And for this purpose, I had its ceremonies 
repeated, in my office, under the secrecy of closed doors, with every means of both 
correct interpretation and of recording the result. Prior to this transaction, Iliad 
observed, in the hands of an Indian of the Odjibwa tribe, one of those symbolic 
tablets of pictorial notation, which have been sometimes called Music Boards, from 
the fact of their devices being sung off, by the initiated of the Meda Society. This 
constituted the object of the explanations, which, in accordance with the positive 
requisitions of the leader of the Society, and three other initiates, was thus ceremo¬ 
niously made. The following plate, 51, is an exact fac simile of it, the original 
tablet having been run by Mr. Peter Maveric through his rolling press, in the city 
of New York, in 1825. 

It is to these figures that the term Mnemonic symbols is applied. They are 
called Nugamoon-un by the natives, that is to say, songs. They are the second grade 
of symbolic pictures of the character of Ke-ke-no-win, or instructions. They are 
merely suggestive to the memory, of the words of the particular song or chant, of 
which each figure is the type. The words of these songs are fixed, and not variable, 
as well as the notes to which they are sung. But these words, to be repeated, must 
have been previously learned by, and known to, the singer. Otherwise, although 
their ideographic character and value would be apparent, and would not be mistaken, 
he would not be able to sing the words of the song. Sounds are no further preserved 
by these mnemonic signs, than is incident, more or less, to all pure figurative or repre¬ 
sentative pictures. The simple figure of a quadruped, a man or a bird, recalls the 
name of a quadruped, a man or a bird. It recalls to the Indian’s mind the corre¬ 
sponding sounds, in his vocabulary of awaysee, ininee, penaysee. This is of some 
value, in the interpretation of the historical inscriptions, or that class of them, for 
which their vocabulary provides the term of Muz-zin-au-bik-oan, or rock-writings. It 
conveys the names of the actors, with their respective tribes, and the clans or leading 
families of the tribes. We may thus recall something of the living language from 
the oblivion of the past, by the pictorial method. Mnemonic symbols are thus at the 
threshold of the hieroglyphic. I suspect that each chant has a key symbol and that 
it is the character of this particular symbol, which operates to direct the memory, as to 
46 


362 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


the number, locality, color of paper or type, or other particular circumstances, on the 
page of a printed book, are known, in some cases, to recall, or energize the memories 
of learners. 

The Plate number 51, embraces two parts. 1. The songs of the Meda proper, 
which are regarded as most sacred. 2. Songs of the Wabeno. We will commence 
with the former, which consists of twenty-two key-symbols, denoting the same number 
of independent chants. 

Figure 1. A medicine lodge filled with the presence of the Great Spirit, who, it is 
affirmed, came down with wings, to instruct the Indians in these ceremonies. The 
meda, or priest, sings — 

Mon e do 
We gum ig 
Ah to dum ing 
Ne we peen de gay. 1 

The Great Spirit’s lodge — you have heard of it. I will enter it. 

While this is sung, and repeated, the priest shakes his shi-shi-gwun, and each 
member of the society holds up one hand in a beseeching manner. All stand, without 
dancing. The drum is not struck during this introductory chant. 

Figure 2. A candidate for admission crowned with feathers, and holding, suspended 
to his arm, an otter-skin pouch, with the wind represented as gushing out of one end. 
He sings, repeating after the priest, all dancing, with the accompaniment of the drum 
and rattle: 

Ne sau moo zhug 
We au ne nay 
Ozh ke bug ge ze 
We ge waum 
Ne peen de gay. 

I have always loved that that I seek. I go into the new green leaf lodge. 

Figure 3 marks a pause, during which the victuals prepared for the feast are 
introduced. 

Figure 4. A man holding a dish in his hand, and decorated with magic feathers on 
his wrists, indicating his character as master of the feast. All sing, 

Ne mau tau 
0 ne go 
Ne kaun. 

I shall give you a share, my friend. 

Figure 5. A lodge apart from that in which the meda-men are assembled, having a 
vapor-bath within it. The elder men go into this lodge, and during the time of their 
taking the bath, or immediately preceding it, tell each other certain secrets relative 

' The initial letter of each line is printed in capitals to facilitate the reading. 





CHARACTER OP THE INDIAN RACE. 


368 


to the arts they employ in the Medawin. The six heavy marks at the top of the 
lodge indicate the steam escaping from the bath. There are three orders of men in 
this society, called 1. meda; 2. saugemau; and 3. ogemau. And it is in these secret 
exchanges of arts, or rather the communication of unknown secrets from the higher 
to the lower orders, that they are exalted from one to another degree. 

The priest sings, all following and beating time on their drums with small sticks, 
while they move round the lodge with a measured tread: 

We ge wauin 
Peen de gay 
Ke kaun 
E naun 

Sain goon ah wau. 

I go into the bath—I blow my brother strong. 

Figure 6. The arm of the priest, or master of ceremonies, who conducts the can¬ 
didate, represented in connection with the next figure. 

Figure 7. The goods, or presents given, as a fee of admission, by the novitiate. 

Ne we hau gwe no 
Ne we hau gwe no 
No sa, ne kaun. 

I wish to wear this, my father —my friend. 

Figure 8. A meda-tree. The recurved projection from the trunk denotes the root 
that supplies the medicine. 

Au ne i au ne nay 
Au ne i au ne nay 
Pa zhik wau kooz e 
Ke mit tig o me naun 
Ke we taush kow au. 

What! my life, my single tree! — we dance around you. 

Figure 9. A stuffed crane-skin, employed as a medicine-bag. By shaking this in 
the dance, plovers and other small birds are made, by a sleight-of-hand trickery, to 
jump out of it. These, the novitiates are taught, spring from the bag by the strong 
power of necromancy imparted by the skill or supernatural power of the operator. 
This is one of the prime arts of the dance. 

Nin gau 
Wau bum au 
A zhe aun 
Kau zhe go wid 
A zhe aun. 

I wish to see them appear — that that has grown — I wish them to appear. 

Figure 10. An arrow in the supposed circle of the sky. Represents a charmed 


364 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


arrow, which, by the power of the meda of the person owning it, is capable of pene¬ 
trating the entire circle of the sky, and accomplishing the object for which it is shot 
out from the bow. 

Au neen, a zhe me go 
Me day we, in in e wau 
I. e. e. me da, me gun ee. 

What are you saying, you mee da man ? This — this is the meda bone. 

Figure 11. The Ka kaik, a species of small hawk, swift of wing, and capable of 
flying high into the sky. The skin of this bird is worn round the necks of warriors 
going into battle. 

Ne kaik-wy on 

Tau be taib way we turn. 

My kite’s skin is fluttering. 

Figure 12. The sky, or celestial hemisphere, with the symbol of the Great Spirit 
looking over it. A Manito’s arm is raised up from the earth in a supplicating posture. 
Birds of good omen are believed to be in the sky. 

Ke wee tau gee zhig 
Noan dau wa 
Mon e do. 

All round the circle of the sky I hear the Spirit’s voice. 

Figure 13. The next figure denotes a pause in the ceremonies. 

Figure 14. A meda-tree. The idea represented is a tree animated by magic or 
spiritual power. 

Wa be no 
Mit tig o 
Wa be no 
Mit tig o 
Ne ne mee 
Kau go 
Ne ne mee 
Kau go. 

The Wabeno tree—it dances. 

Figure 15. A stick used to beat the Ta-wa-e-gun or drum. 

Pa bau neen 
Wa wa seen 
Neen bau gi e gun. 

How rings aloud the drum-stick’s sound. 

Figure 16. Half of the celestial hemisphere — an Indian walking upon it. The 
idea symbolized is the sun pursuing his diurnal course till noon. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


365 


Nau baun 
A gee zhig a 
Pe moos au tun aun 
Geezh ig. 

I walk upon half of the sky. 

Figure 17. The Great Spirit filling all space with his beams, and enlightening the 
world by the halo of his head. He is here depicted as the god of thunder and light¬ 
ning. 

Ke we tau 
Gee zhig 
Ka te kway 
We te4m aun. 

I sound all round the sky, that they can hear me. 

Figure 18. The Ta-wa-e-gun, or single-headed drum. 

Ke gau tay 
Be tow au 

Neen in tay way e gun. 

You shall hear the sound of my Ta-wa-e-gun. 

Figure 19. The Ta-wa-e-gonse, or tambourine, ornamented with feathers, and a 
wing, indicative of its being prepared for a sacred use. 

Kee nees o tau nay 
In tay way e gun. 

Do you understand my drum ? 

Figure 20. A raven. The skin and feathers of this bird are worn as head orna¬ 
ments. 

Kau gau ge wau 

In way aun 

Way me gwun e aun. 

I sing the raven that has brave feathers. 

Figure 21. A crow, the wings and head of which are worn as a head-dress. 

In daun daig o 
In daun daig o 
Wy aun 
Ne ow way. 

I am the crow—I am the crow—his skin is my body. 

Figure 22. A medicine lodge. A leader or master of the Meda society, standing 
with his drum-stick raised, and holding in his hands the clouds and the celestial 
hemisphere. 

Ne peen de gay 
Ne peen de gay 


366 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Ke we ge waun 
Ke we ge waun. 

I wish to go into your lodge—I go into your lodge. 

The idea of the sacred word Meda, which appears to be made prominent by these 
chants, is a subtile and all-pervading Principle of Power (whether good, or merely great 
power is not established by any allusions) which is to be propitiated by, or acted on, 
through certain animals, or plants, or mere objects of art, and thus brought under the 
control of the Meda-man, or necromancer. He exhibits to the initiates and the mem¬ 
bers of his lodge fraternity, a series of boasting and symbolic declamation. This cere¬ 
mony is called a medicine dance, and the lodge a medicine lodge. But the word mus- 
k4-ke, or medicine, does not occur in it, nor is there any allusion to the healing art, 
except in a single instance, in the chant No. 8, in which the term “ Au koozze” 
occurs. This is the third person of the indicative, he (or she), sick. The operators 
are not mus-ke-ke-win-in-ee, or physicians, but Meda-win-in-ee, that is Meda-men. 
They assemble, not to teach the art of healing, but the art of supplicating spirits. 
They do not rely on physical, but supernatural power. It is, indeed, a perversion of 
terms to call the institution a medicine society. Its members are not professors of 
the mus-ke-ke-win, but the Medawin—not medicine-men, but necromancers, or medi¬ 
cal magii. 


5. Kites and Symbolic Notations of the Songs of the 

W A B E N O. 


Pictorial Signs used in the Society of the Wabeno; — A Description of the Character and Objects 
of this Institution; — Etymology of the term;—The Season favorable for this, and other 
Ceremonial observances; —Vicissitudes of Indian Life; —Fallacy of the Indian Theology;— 
Interpretation of the Pictorial Mnemonic Signs of the Wabeno, with the text of the Nuga- 
moon-un;—Synoptical Table, showing the Ideographic value of the Symbols. 

E. Wabeno. —It has been stated that this institution among our Indians is a modi¬ 
fication of the ceremonies of the Meda. It is stated by judicious persons among them¬ 
selves to be of modern origin. They regard it as a degraded form of the mysteries of 
the Meda, which, according to Pottawatomie tradition (page 317), were introduced by 
the Manitoes to revive Manabozho out of his gloom, on account of the death of 
Chebiabos. It permits the introduction of a class of subjects, which are studiously 
excluded from the Meda. It is in the orgies of this society alone, that we hear the topic 
of love being introduced. Songs of love mingle in its mysteries, and are made subjects 
of mnemonic record. The mysteries of this institution are always conducted at night, 
and never by day. Many of the deceptions practised in the exhibition of its arts, 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


367 


derive their effect from the presence of darkness. Tricks by fire are of this character. 
The sounds of its orgies are often hea,rd at very late hours; and if the sound of the 
Indian drum be heard after midnight, it may generally be inferred with certainty to 
proceed from the circle of the Wabenoes. The term Wabeno itself is a derivative 
from Wabun, the morning light. Its orgies are protracted till morning dawn. Men 
of-the-Dawn, is a free translation of the term in its plural form. 

In exhibiting the characters of the pictorial art as applied to the dances and songs 
of the Wabeno, it is essential to exhibit the character and tendency of the institution, 
as based on Indian manners and customs. There is so little truly known on the 
subject, that the investigation is not deemed out of place. Almost all the allusions 
of travellers on this topic are vague, and its ceremonies are spoken of as things to be 
gazed and wondered at. Writers seem often to have partaken of no small part of the 
spirit of mystery which actuated the breasts of the performers. 

The season of revelry and dissipation among these tribes is that which follows the 
termination of the winter and spring hunts. It is at this time that the hunter’s hands 
are filled; and he quits the remote forests where he has exerted his energies in the 
chase to visit the frontiers, and exchange his skins and peltries and his sugar for goods 
and merchandise of American or European manufacture. Means are thus enjoyed 
which he cannot as well command at any other season. But, above all, this is the por¬ 
tion of the year when the hunting of animals must be discontinued. It is the season of 
reproduction. Skins and furs are now out of season, and, if bought, would command 
no price. Nature herself provides for this repose: the pelt is bad, and parts from 
the skin. By the 1st of June, throughout all the latitudes north of 42°, the forests 
are deserted, and the various bands of hunters are found to be assembled round the 
frontier forts and towns, or dispersed along the shores of the lakes and rivers in their 
vicinity. It is the natural carnival of the tribes. The young amuse themselves in 
sports, ball-playing, and dances. The old take counsel on their affairs. The medas, 
the wabenoes, and jossakeeds, exert their skill. It is the season for feasts : all hearts 
are disposed to rejoice. As long as means last, the round of visits and feasting is kept 
up. By a people who are habitually prone to forget the past, and are unmindful of 
the future, the cares and hardships of the hunter’s life are no longer thought of. The 
warmth and mildness of the season is a powerful incentive to these periodical indul¬ 
gences : dissipation is added to sloth, and riot to indulgence. So completely absorbing are 
these objects—so fully do they harmonize with the feelings, wishes, theology, and philo¬ 
sophy of the Indian mind, that the hours of summer may be said to slip away unper¬ 
ceived, and the Indian is awakened from his imaginary trance at the opening of autumn, 
by the stem calls of want and hunger. He now sees that he must again rouse himself 
for the chase, or starve. He must prepare once more to plunge into the recesses of 
the forest, or submit to that penury and degradation which is the price of his continu¬ 
ance within the settlements. The tempests of autumn, which begin to whistle around 


368 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


his summer wigwam, are no surer tokens of the ice and snows which will block up 
his path, than the failure of all his means are, that it is only by renewed exertion, 
and a manly resort to his gun and trap, his arrow and his spear, that he can replace 
them. Such is the round of vicissitudes of Indian life. He labors during the fall and 
winter, that he may enjoy the spring and summer. He accumulates nothing but his 
experience; and this tells him that life is a round of severe trials, and he is soonest 
happy who is first relieved of it. He has no religion to inform him of the realities of 
a state of futurity; and the consequence is that he is early wearied of this round 
of severe vicissitudes, and is absolutely glad when the hour of death arrives. 

The whole tendency of the Indian secret institutions is to acquire power, through 
belief in a multiplicity of spirits; to pry into futurity by this means, that he may 
provide against untoward events; to propitiate the class of benign spirits, that he may 
have success in war, in hunting, and in the medical art; or by acceptable sacrifices, 
incantations, and songs, to the class of malignant spirits, that his social intercourse 
and passions may have free scope. It is to the latter objects that the association of 
the wabeno is directed. Full examples of its songs and ceremonies, as recorded in 
the pictorial inscriptions, will be submitted, because, without such testimony, symbol 
upon symbol and song upon song, the actual scope and purport of it, and its important 
influence upon the Indian mind, could not be understood. 

The following eighteen symbolic signs, constitute part No. 2 of Plate 51. It is to 
be remarked that the order of these figures is strictly observed, but in taking impres¬ 
sions from the wooden tablet on which they were originally cut, the plate is reversed. 
This does not affect the numbers, or the order of interpretation. 

Figure 1 represents a necromancer’s or wabeno’s hand, in a supplicating posture, 
holding a bone. Such an object is worn as a charm or amulet, in a belt around the 
body. He opens the rites he is about to perform with an address, of which the 
following is a translation: 

I speak to the Great Spirit to save my life by this token, (the bone,) and to make 
it efficacious for my preservation and success. It is not I that have made it, but thou, 
Great Spirit, who hast made this world, and all things in it. Hear me, and show 
pity to my cry. He then sings— 

(Cabalistic chorus.) Na ha 
Yaw ne 
Na ha 
Yaw ne 

Ning o sau hau wa be no. 

I am a friend of the wabeno. 

Figure 2. Symbol of a tree which is supposed to emit supernatural sounds, some¬ 
times like a great gun, and is thought to be the residence of a spirit. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


369 


(Cabalistic chorus.) Hi au ha 

Ge he he 
He he ge 
Hi au ha 
Hi au ge 

We gau bo we aun. 

I (the tree) sound for my life as I stand. 

The drum and she-she-gwun are used while these chants are being sung as solos by 
the wabeno, the Indians, in the mean time, sitting. As soon as they are finished, they 
rise, and begin to dance. 

Figure 3. A wabeno dog, running towards his master, who is in the act of vomiting 
blood. All sing— 

In dau ge 
We but to 
Ne au wee 
In dau ge 
We but to 

Ne au wee. (Repeat and transpose.) 

I shall run to him—who is my body. 

(Cabalistic chorus.) Hi au ha 

Ge he he 
He he ge 
Hi au ha 
Hi au ge. 

Figure 4. A sick man throwing up blood. 

In gau ge we na 
In gau ge we na 
Wa be no nis se o doan. 

I struggle for life — Wabeno kill it. 

Figure 5. The Pipe. The idea represented is, that “bad medicine” has been 
applied to the pipe — it is unsuspectingly smoked by one whom the owner wishes to 
injure. The smoke enters his lungs — he withers up. 

Me da wug 
In goos au 
Op-wau gun 
In goos au 
Way me gwun id. 

Hi au ha, &c. 

The meda I fear — the pipe I fear — that has feathers on. 

Figure 6. A worm called Mosa, that eats decaying wood, making a sounding noise. 
47 


370 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Wa be no 
Mo say 
Wi an 
In dau wau 
Mb say 
Wi au 
Mb say 
Wi au 

Ne in dau wau. 

Hi au ha, &c. 

The Mosay’s skin I use — The Mosay’s skin I use. 

Figure 7. A Wabeno Spirit, who is addressed for aid. 

Aw wa nain 
Pau ne bow id 
Wa be no 
Mon e do 
Pau ne bow id 
Au wa nain, &c. 

Hi au ha, &c. 

Who is that, standing there ? A wabeno spirit, standing there ! 

Figure 8. An Indian hunter, gifted with the arts of the Wabeno, holding a bow 
and arrow. He is hungry — he goes out to hunt — he has four arrows. He finds a 
moose’s track, and observing where the animal has urinated, takes some of the urine 
and after mixing his medicines in it, puts some of it upon his arrow and fires into the 
track. The moose is seized with a strangury, and falling behind his companions in 
consequence, the Indian is able to overtake and kill him. 

(Cabalistic chorus.) Way ha 
Way ha 
Yau hah 
Way ha 

Was sau way kum ig 
A nuh ke yaun. 

Way ha, &c. 


I shoot far over the earth. 

Figure 9. The sign symbolizing the Great Spirit, filling the sky with his presence. 

A ne kwa 
Ge bi aun 
Ge zhick 
0 wun 


Hi au ha, &c. 

Where I sit, my head points to the centre of the sky. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


371 


At this point of the ceremonies there is a pause. The singers and performers 
having completed certain evolutions around the Meda lodge, sit down. After a time, 
they arise, and resume the ceremonies, dancing, and moving about the lodge, in a 
certain order, while they sing, and shake their she-she-gwuns , or rattles. 

Figure 10. The sky with clouds. 

Ah no kwut 
I a ha 
Ah no kwut 
Ge zhig o 
Neen gee zhig o 
Ah no kwut. 

Hi au ha, &c. 

The cloud that is in my sky — the cloud that is in my sky. 

Figure 11. A cloudy sky, with a fabulous animal, called the white tiger, with a 
long tail, who chases the clouds. He is sometimes represented with wings from the 
centre of his back. He now wishes to see above : i. e., to peep into futurity. 

Ke zhig 
0 wee 

Wa bun daun 

0 ho. (Repeat and transpose.) 

Hi au ha, &c. 

He wishes to look into the sky. Into the sky he wishes to look. 

Figure 12. A wolf called Mohwha. He is depicted with horns to denote power. 
The idea called to mind by this figure is this,— Meda-win, or mystic medicine, 
has been put on the head and tail of the animal, to induce him to hunt for the 
wabeno. 

Neen gah gee 
0 sau go to 
Ge ha 
Mah bah 

Moh wha, he he wau. 

Hi au ha, &c. 

I shall hunt the prey. This wolf of mine. 

At this point of the ceremonies there is a pause, denoted by the two vertical bars 
of the symbolic inscription. They now arise, and the drum and dance is renewed. 

Figure 13. The Kanieu, or War Eagle. This bird, the theory affirms, hovers near 
the fight, and eats the slain as soon as the battle is ended. His feathers indicate the 
highest honors, when worn by warriors. 

Tah gee zhig ho (Tah is imperative; Ho calls to action.) 
Tah gee zhig o 


372 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Pe nay see wug (Plural in wug.) 

Tati gee zhig ho. 

Hi au ha, &c. 

They shall gather in the sky. The birds shall gather in the sky. 

Figure 14. A bow and arrow. When the follower of these arts wishes to kill a 
particular animal, a grass or cloth image of it is made, and hung up in his wigwam. 
After repeating the following incantation, he shoots at the image. If he drives the 
arrow into it, it is deemed a sign that the animal will be killed next day, and the 
arrow is immediately drawn out and burnt. 

Hi nah ka (declaration.) 

Ne ah way 
Hi nah ka 

Ne ah way. (Repeat four or five times.) 

See how I fire! 

Figure 15. A master of the magical or Meda art sitting on the globe: with one 
hand he holds the sky — the forked end of which, as delineated, represents a cloud 
symbolically. 1 He is drawing down knowledge from the sky for the benefit of the 
human race. 

Na nau hau be 
Na nau hau be 
Gee zhig oom 
A no o maun. 

What do I see ? What do I see ? My sky that I am pointing to. 

Figure 16. The sun representing the Great Spirit. He is symbolized as looking 
down upon the Indians, and is pleased to behold these ceremonies. 

Tau neen a 

Wau bum a un 

Tau neen a 

Wau bum a un 

Kau nah wau bum e aun a 

Kau nah wau bum e aun a. 

Why do you look at me? 

Figure 17. A bow and arrow, the latter directed downward. This is represented 
as an enchanted bow. There is a post in the centre of the lodge, and five pebbles 
lying in a row. The Wabeno affects to shoot through four of them, and the arrow 
sticks in the fifth, leaving them all strung upon its point. 


1 This drawing is found graphically to depict the leading idea embraced in Isaiah xl. 22. See Plate 51, No. 
15. The same verse gives the leading thought of a curtained sky, represented in Figures 10 and 11 of the same 
plate. 


































































































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


373 


Wa go nain 
Ah wa nain 
An au ka aun? 

Os sin een e 
Win o bun 

Ah au ka aun? (Repeat three times.) 

Why! what is it I am firing at, on the ground ? It was pebbles I was firing at. 

Figure 18. A young man, under the excitement of love, with feathers on his head, 
and a drum and drum-stick in his hands. He affects power to influence the object 
of his desires. 

Nun dau wau kum 
Ta way e gun 
Nun dau wau kum 
Ta way e gun 
A zhau wau kum ig 
In dun wa we turn 
A zhau wau kum ig 
In dun wa we turn. 

Hi, au, ha, &c. 

Hear my drum — hear my drum, [though you be] on the other side of the earth, hear 
my drum. 

Thus far there is very little to draw a line between the principles of the meda and 
wabeno. With the exception of Figure 18, the general objects of the signs and 
chants are the same. The sun is employed here, as there, as the symbol of the Great 
Spirit. The ideas that are entertained of this Spirit are to be drawn from the belief 
of the wabeno, that he will exert his power, through necromaucy, in the vegetable 
kingdom (Figure 2), and among the classes of animals and birds (Figures 3, 6, 11, 12, 
13), that he will endow inanimate objects with equal power (Figures 5, 14, 17), and, 
finally, that he will not favor the designs of men, when they are not directed to right 
and virtuous objects. This is clearly the province assigned by Indian belief for the 
antagonistical power of evil. If this be not demonology, we have no true conceptions 
of it. But we introduce some further illustrations. 

Plate 52 depicts thirty mnemonic symbols of this institution, transcribed from the 
reverse of the tablet which yielded Plate 51. 

Figure 1 depicts a preliminary chant. The figure represents a lodge prepared for 
a nocturnal dance, marked with seven crosses, to denote dead bodies, and crowned 
with a magic bone and feathers. It is fancied that this lodge has the power of loco¬ 
motion, or crawling about. The owner, and inviter of the guests, sings solus. 

Wa be no (Wabeno.) 

Pe mo da (he creep, Ind. mood.) 


374 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Ne we ge warn (my lodge.) 

Wa be no 
Pe mo da 
Ne we ge warn. 

Hi, au, ha 
Nhuh e way 
Nhuh e way. 

Ha! ha! huh! huh ! huh ! 

My lodge crawls by the Wabeno’s power. 

Figure 2. An Indian holding a snake in his hand. He has been taken, it is under¬ 
stood, underground by the power of medical magic, and is exhibited as a triumph of 
skill. 

Ah nau 
Muk kum mig 
In doan 
De naun 
Nau muk 
Kum mig. 

Hi, au, ha, &c. 

Under the ground I have taken him. 

The inscription is here marked by a bar, indicating a pause. At this point the 
singing becomes general, and the dance begins, accompanied with the ordinary musical 
instruments. 

Figure 3. An Indian in a sitting posture, crowned with feathers, and holding out a 
drum-stick. 

Gi a neen ( Gia , adverb also.) 

Ne wa be no 
Gi a neen 
Ne wa be no. 

Hi, a, ee, &c. {Repeat — Cabalistic.) 

I too am a Wabeno—I too am a Wabeno. 

Figure 4. A spirit dancing on the half of the sky. The horns denote either a 
spirit, or a wabeno filled with a spirit. 

Wa be no 
Nau ne me au 
Wa be no 
Nau ne me au. 

Hi, a, ee, &c. {Cabalistic.) 

I make the Wabenos dance. 

Fgure 5. A magic bone decorated with feathers. This is a- symbol indicative of 
the power of passing through the air, as if with wings. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


375 


Kee zhig 
Ee me 
In ge 
Na osh 
She au. 

Hi! a! ee! &c. ( Cabalistic .) 

The sky! the sky I sail upon! 

Figure 6. A great serpent, called gitchy keenabic, always depicted, as in this 
instance, with horns. It is the symbol of life. 

Mon e do 
We aun 
A ko 
Wa be no. 

Nuk ka yaun. 

Hi! a! &c. 

I am a wabeno spirit—this is my work. 

Figure 7. A hunter, with a bow and arrow. By appealing to his magical arts he 
fancies himself able to see animals at a distance, and to bring them into his path, so 
that he can kill them. In all this he is influenced by looking at his secret symbolical 
signs or markings. 

Ne zhow 
We nuk 
Ka yawn 
Ne zhow 
We nuk 
Ka yawn. 

Hi! a! &c. ( Cabalistic.) 

I work with two bodies. 

Figure 8. A black owl. (Kara avis.) 

Ko ko ko 
Au 

Ko ko ko 
Au 

Muk ko da 
Ko ko ko 
Au. 

Hi! a! haa! &c. ( Cabalistic.) 

The owl — the owl — the great black owl. 

Figure 9. A wolf standing on the sky. A gift is sought. This is the symbol of 
vigilance. 


376 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


In dau 
Na waii 
In dau 
Nun do 
Na wau. 

Hi! e! ha! &c. 


Let me hunt for it. 

Figure 10. Flames. 

Wau nau ko 

Na! ha! ha! ( Cabalistic .) 

Wau nau ho 
Na! ha! ha! 

Burning flames — Burning flames. 

Figure 11. This figure represents a foetus half-grown in the womb. The idea of its 
age is symbolized by its having but one wing. The singer here uses a mode of 
phraseology by which he conceals, at the same time that he partly reveals, a fact in 
his private history or attachments. 

Ne chau nis 
Ne chau nis 
Ke zhow way 
Ne min. 


Hi! a! &c. 

My little child — my little child, I show you pity. 

Figure 12. A tree, supposed to be animated by a demon. 

Ki! au! ge! 

We gau bo 
We aun 

Ki au ge, we gau bo, we aun. 

Hi! a! &c. 

I turn round in standing. 

Figure 13. A female. She is depicted as one who has rejected the addresses of 
many. A rejected lover procures mystic medicine, and applies it to her breasts and 
the soles of her feet. This causes her to sleep, during which he makes captive of her, 
and carries her off to the woods. 


Wa be no wau (Wabeno-power.) 

Ne augh we na (Occult.) 

Nyah eh wa, &c. (Triumphant chorus.) 

A pause in the ceremonies is denoted by bars between figures 13 and 14. 
Figure 14. A Wabeno spirit of the air. He is depicted with wings, and a tail 
like a bird, to denote his power in the air, and on the earth. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


377 


Wa be no 
Ne bow 
We tah 
Wa be no 
Ne bow 
We tah. 

Wabeno, let us stand. 

Figure 15. An anomalous symbol of the moon, representing a great wabeno spirit, 
whose power is indicated by his horns, and rays depending from his chin like a beard. 
The symbol is obscure. 

In di aun 
0 zhe toan 
Neen ah 

Ne peek wun au. 

I have made it—with my back. 

Figure 16. A Wabeno bone ornamented similar to figures 1 and 5. 

In ge 

We nau wau 
In ge 

We nau wau. 

I have made him struggle for life. 

Figure 17. A tree with human legs and feet. A symbol of the power of the 
Wabeno in the vegetable kingdom. 

Wa bun 
Ne ge kee 
We gau yaun. 

I dance till daylight. 

Figure 18. A magic bone. By this sign the performer boasts of supernatural 
power. 

Ke we 
Gau yaun 
Ke we 
Gau yaun. 

Dance around, ye! 

Figure 19. A drum-stick. The symbol of a co-laborer in the art. 

Gi a neen 
In gwis say. 

And I too, my son. 

Figure 20. A Wabeno with one horn, holding up a drum-stick. This figure denotes 
a newly initiated member. 

48 


378 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


We au be no wid 
Nin go sau. 

He that is a Wabeno, I fear. 

Figure 21. A headless man standing on the top of the earth. A prime symbol of 
miraculous power and boasting. 

Ke ow 
We naun 
Ke ow 
We naun. 

Your body I make go, (alluding to figure No. 1.) 

Figure 22. A tree reaching up to the arc of the sky. He symbolizes the great 
power of the tree to whose magic power he trusts. 

Neem bay 
Shau ko naun 
Ne met tig oam. 

I paint my tree to the sky. 

Figure 23. A human figure, with horns, holding a club. It is the figure of a Wabeno. 

Hwee o (A cabalistic expression, supposed to express a wish.) 
Gwis say 
Hwee o 

Gwis say. (Four repeats and chorus.) 

I wish a son. 

Figure 24. The falco furcatus or swallow-tailed hawk, called Shau-shau-won-e-bee- 
see, a bird that preys on reptiles. It is an emblem of power in war. 

Wa be no 

Ne gee zig oom. (Four repeats and chorus.) 

My Wabeno sky. 

The next figure of vertical lines denotes a pause. The dancers rest and then 
resume the dance. 

Figure 25. A master of the Wabeno society, depicted with one horn reversed, and 
a single arm. The idea is, that with but one arm his power is great. His heart is 
shown to denote the influence of the Meda on it. 

Git shee 
Wa be no 
Ne ow 

Hwee. (Four repeats and chorus.) 

My body is a great Wabeno. 

Figure 26. A nondescript bird of ill omen. 

Nin gwis say to kun 
Pe mis say to kun. 

My son’s bone — The walking bone. 


379 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

Figure 27. A human body with the head and wings of a bird. 

Ti um bau she wug 

Ne kdun. (Repeat and chorus.) 

They will fly up, my friend. 

Figure 28. Mississay — a turkey. A symbol of boasted power in the operator. 

Mississay' in dow au 
Mississay' in dow au. 

The turkey I make use of. 

Figure 29. A wolf. A symbol of assumed power to search. 

Muh way wau 
Hi au i aun. 

I have a wolf,— a wolf’s skin. 

Figure 30. A flying lizard, or dragon snake. He calls in question the power 
assumed. 

Kau we au Mon e do 
Kau we au Mon e do 
Wa be no Mon e do. 

There is no spirit! There is no spirit! Wabeno spirit. 

Figure 31. A Wabeno personified with the power of flying. 

Wa hau bun o 
Git shee 
Wa hau bun o 
Git shee 
Wa bun o, ho! 

Ge ozhe tone. 

Great Wabeno! Great Wabeno ! I make the Wabeno. 

Here is another pause or division of the ceremonies, and songs. 

Figure 32. A pipe of ceremony. This is the emblem of peace. The operator 
smokes it to propitiate success. 

Au neen meetay wau 
Mo ne do wid 
Wa bun e dun. 

What, meda, my spirit brother, do you see ? 

Figures 33, 34. A symbol of the moon, with rays, &c. Represents a man and a snake. 

Noan dau tib bik 
Koot che' hau no tau. 

In the night I come to harm you. 

Figure 35. A Wabeno. This is, apparently, a symbol of the sun. 

Wa bun oong 

Un i tau tub be aun. 


I am sitting in the east. 


380 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 

Figure 36. A dragon-winged serpent, or Gitchee Kanaibik. Denotes great power 
over life. 

Ne ow way; ne kaun 
In ge we now waun. 

With my body, brother, I shall knock you down. 

Figure 37. A wolf depicted with a charmed heart, to denote the magic power of 
the Meda. 

Ningo tohee 
Muh whay 
Ow wau. 

Run, wolf—your body’s mine. 

Figure 38. A magic bone, the boasted symbol of necromantic skill. The words 
accompanying this figure were not given. 

The following synopsis, referring by figures to the hieroglyphic devices, exhibits the 
words of the chants and incantations in their simplest forms, together with the key- 
sign or ideographic terms of pictorial notation. 


Synopsis of Wabeno Songs. — Plate 52. 


Chant , or Incantation. 


Key-Symbol, or Ideographic term of 
Notation. 


1. My lodge crawls by the Wabeno 

power. 

2. Under the ground I have taken him. 

3. I too am a Wabeno. 

4. I make the Wabeno dance. 

5. The sky—the sky I sail upon. 

6. I am a Wabeno spirit — this is my 

work. 

7. I work with two bodies. 

8. The owl! the owl! the black owl! 

9. Let me hunt for it. 

10. The burning flames. 

11. My little child, I show you pity. 

12. I turn round in standing. 

13. The Wabeno’s power. 

14. Wabeno, let us stand. 

15. I have made it with my back. 


A lodge for nocturnal dances. 

A man holding a live snake. 

The figure of a man sitting, crowned with 
feathers. 

A man standing on half the celestial 
hemisphere. 

A magic bone, decorated with feathers. 

A horned serpent. 

A hunter with a bow and arrow. 

An owl. 

A wolf standing on the sky. 

Flames. 

A human figure with one wing. 

A tree. 

A female figure. 

An artificial figure representing a spirit. 

A demoniacal spirit. 






CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


381 


Chant , or Incantation . 

Key-Symbol, or Ideographic term of 
Notation. 

16. I have made him struggle for life. 

A magic bone with wings. 

17. I dance till day light. 

A tree with human legs. 

18. Dance around. 

A magic bone. 

19. And I too, my son. 

A drum-stick. 

20. He that is a Wabeno I fear. 

A man with one horn, holding a drum¬ 
stick. 

21. Your body I make go. 

A headless man standing on the sky, de¬ 
picted with a charmed heart. 

22. I paint my tree to the sky. 

A tree reaching the supposed arc of the 
sky. 

23. I wish a son. 

A man, depicted with the emblems of 
power. 

24. My wabeno sky. 

A swallow-tailed hawk. 

25. My body is a great Wabeno. 

A man, depicted with one arm, and one 
horn reversed. 

26. My son’s bone — the crawling bone. 

A nondescript bird. 

27. They will fly up, my friends. 

A human body, with the head and wings 
of a bird. 

28. The turkey I make use of. 

A turkey. 

29. The wolf’s skin I have. 

A wolf. 

30. There is no spirit—no Wabeno spirit. 

A flying lizard. 

31. Great Wabeno. I make the Wabeno. 

A man with wings and horns. 

32. What spirit, brother, do you see? 

O O 1 

A pipe. 

34 y At night I come to harm you. 

, Symbol of the moon. 

35. I am sitting in the East. 

Symbol of the sun. 

36. With my meda, brother, I shall knock 
you down. 

A monster snake, or dragon. 

37. Run, wolf! your body’s mine. 

A wolf, depicted with a charmed heart. 

38. 

A magic bone. 


It is manifest from this examination, that there is no clue given to the words 
of these chants, except that resulting from the power of association of ideas, and 
that the words must have been committed to memory before this pictorial record 
could be read, or sung. As an aid to the memory of the Meda, or the Wabeno, 
seated in a large assemblage, and surrounded with objects suited to withdraw his 
attention from the chants, and weaken his verbal memory, such inscriptions must be 
of high use. To others, besides the Medas, Jossakeeds and Wabenos, they must 
present only such general ideographic information as is denoted by the simple 
symbols, or representative signs. 









382 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


6. Symbols of Hunting and feats of the Chase. 

Application of Pictorial Characters to the Art of Hunting and the Incidents of the Chase. — In¬ 
fluence of the Belief in the Medawin on early Education in Forest Arts. — Examples of the 
Symbols and Figures employed for this purpose, by the Tribes around the Sources of the 
Mississippi. — Mnemonic Songs of the Meda, — sung preparatory to Hunting. — Further 
Examples from the Upper Missouri. — Bark Record of a Chief’s success in War and Hunting, 
Evidence of attempts to preserve Biographical Events, in Picture-Writing. 

F. Keossawin, or Hunting. — The signs used in the preparations for, and in the 
pursuit of the chase, are the Kekewin and the Kekenowin, that is to say, a mixture 
of both the simple representative signs and instructions, and symbolic signs. The art 
of hunting is the primary object of a non-agricultural people, and all these insti¬ 
tutions are made to bend and conform to it. The earliest rudimental art, taught the 
hunter’s son, is the use of the bow and arrow, and his first success among the 
birds and smaller animals, which surround his father’s lodge, is hailed as an omen of 
his future triumph in the chase. And his indulgent parents always prepare, on this 
occasion, a family feast, in which the little bird, or animal killed by the tiny hunts¬ 
man, is ostentatiously displayed. The boy himself is placed at the head of the feast, 
and his mother and sisters wait upon him, and dish out the food, with a truly 
oriental formality. The skill and pride of manhood, thus early fanned into life, 
is fed with stronger fuel, as he grows up, till increase of strength, and knowledge of 
the woods and of the habits of the animated creation, enable him to bring down the 
deer, to capture the bear, and to entrap the beaver. That the Indian’s belief in the 
magical power of the meda, and the art of the meda-wininee, or meda-men, should be 
brought to bear on the business of hunting, may naturally be inferred. The ceremo¬ 
nies which the father adopts, to propitiate success, the son imitates; and, long before 
he reaches manhood, he esteems these ceremonies of the highest importance. The 
efficacy of the different baits put in traps, the secret virtues and power of certain 
substances carried in the medicine-sack, and exhibited in the secret arcanum of 
the meda’s and jossakeed’s lodge, are objects of eager and earnest attainment. And 
no small part of the time the hunter devotes to ceremonial rites, is given up to this 
mystical part of his art. 

It is believed that these secret and sacred objects of care, preserved in his Skipeta- 
gun, are endowed with virtues to attract animals in certain ranges of country, to which 
they are willed by the jossakeed. An arrow touched by their magical medawin, and 
afterwards fired into the track of an animal, is believed to arrest his course, or other¬ 
wise affect him until the hunter can come up. A similar virtue is believed to be 
exerted, if but the figure of the animal sought be drawn on wood or bark, and after¬ 
wards submitted to the efficacious influences of the magic medicine, and the incanta- 



















































‘ 



































I 






I 

































•< 
















Plate sa 



PICTOGRAPHIC INSCRIPTIONS USED LN HUNTING 




























CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


383 


tion. Pictographs of such drawings are frequently carried about by the hunter, to 
avail himself of their influence, or of the means of becoming more perfect in the mys¬ 
tical art, by intercommunication with other and distant Indians. These figures 
are often drawn on portable objects of his property, such as implements of hunting, 
canoes, utensils, or rolls of lodge-barks, or sheathing. So subtile is the principle of 
influence exerted by the Medawug or magii deemed to be, that one hunter, it is 
believed, can wield it against another, and thus paralyze his exertions, or render his 
weapons, or his skill in using them, inefficacious. The belief in this species of witch¬ 
craft, among all the tribes, is very general. I have never found any exceptions 
among them as whole tribes. Particular professors in the arts of the societies of the 
Jeesukawin and Medawin, are believed to be more skilful or powerful than others; 
and much of the native energies of the Red men is wasted and paralyzed by endeavors 
to acquire skill in their occult arts. The annexed figures, (Plate 53,) are transcribed 
and selected from separate inscriptions used in hunting, throughout a wide range of 
the north-western latitudes, reaching from St. Mary’s at the foot of Lake Superior, to 
Red River and the plains of the Saskatchewine. 

No. 1, is the figure of a learner in the Meda. He is drawn with waved lines from 
each ear, to denote hearing or attention. His heart is depicted as under the magic 
influence. He sings this chant:— 

Shi e gwuh 
Ne no no nen dum 
Ah me 

Me da win in ne wug 
Ne kau nug 
A na mud ub e vuss. 

Now I hear it from the Meda-men, my friends, who are sitting around. 

No. 2, is a compound symbol, denoting a beaver in the act of swimming down a 
stream. The professor of the art affects to have power from, or coincident with the 
Great Spirit. He exclaims — 

A wa nain 
Ba mah je wung-a? 

Mo ne do 

0 be mah je wun-ga. 

Who makes this river to flow ? The Monedo, he makes the stream to flow. 

No. 3, depicts a Meda. He is about to open his performances, and appeals to the 
candor and sympathy of his fellows. 

Kah we whaub o me da 
Ne kau nug 
Need juh 
Nish e nau ba 


384 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 

Ka ke ka ne me kwain 
Ne kau nug. 

Behold me, Medas, my friends. Unishenauba, (or the common people.) Question 
me, my friends. 

No. 4. Depicts the symbolical union of a Meda with a bird. He affects to have all 
space at his command, and to be gifted with powers of supernatural locomotion. 

Ah wa nain 
Ba bah mis saud 
Ween jeeh 
Un ish en au ba? 

Who makes the Unishenauba, my fellows, walk about? 

Be nais e wah 
Ba bah mo saud 
Wee jee ha 
Unish en au ba. 

The birds they make the Unishenauba, my fellows, walk about. 

Number 5. Represents the union of a bird and an arrow, by a bird’s body with an 
arrow’s head. This is a boastful symbol for a hunter. He boasts in these words:— 

Neen 

Ba ba mis sa gahn 
Nin goatsh 
Ah wai see 
Neen gah 
Kwa tin ah wau. 

I fly at will, and if I see an animal I can shoot him. 

This comprehends one of the original hunter’s cartes, or barks of inscription, with 
the text of the mnemonic chants. In the following synopsis the native words are 
omitted, but their literal import is given, together with the symbolic value of the 
figures, and their mnemonic import. Each Meda sings an independent verse. 

6. I sit down in the meda’s place — the Monedo lodge. (A Meda lodge.) 

7. Two days must you fast, my friend — four days must you sit still. (Two marks 
on the breast, and four across the legs, denote time.) 

8. Cast away your garments — throw them off. (He boasts of magic power.) 

9. I am loaded with gifts — I sit down to rest. (The position denotes rest, the 
circle over the head a load.) 

10. Who makes the people walk to feasts ?—It is I. (A good hunter, denoted by 
a bird with an arrow’s head.) 

11. I shoot your heart! wary moose ! I hit your heart. (A moose under enchant¬ 
ment.) 

12. I cause myself to look like fire. (A bear enchanted.) 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


385 


13. I can call water from above — from the heavens and from the earth. (Water 
symbolized by a dish on the head, filled.) 

14. I have caused to look like the dead, a man — I have caused to look like the 
dead, a woman — I have caused to look like the dead, a child. (Human figure with 
the face crossed.) 

15. I shine by night. (Symbol of the moon.) 

16. A spirit is what I employ. (An arrow.) 

17. Can any animal remain longer under the water than I? I am a beaver, and 
can keep under water longer than any. (A beaver.) 

18. To myself I do good—to myself. (Abundance of goods denoted by the circle 
around the head, and the square to represent the female meda.) 

19. I hear the words of your mouth, you are an evil spirit. (Hearing denoted by 
waving lines.) 

20. The feather—the feather-—it is the power. (A feather.) 

21. I am the wild cat — I have just come up out of the ground. Who can master 
the wild cat ? (A panther, or wild cat.) 

22. A beast! What beast comes calling ? — It is a deer is calling. (A deer.) 

23. I am a spirit! what I have I give to you in your heart. (A spirit denoted by 
rays from the head — a meda by the rattle.) 

24. His tongue, exclaiming, We go ! A bear —his tongue ! (A bear’s tongue.) 

25. Your own tongue kills you—it is your own. Bitter words denoted by an arrow 
pointed towards himself.) 

26. Anything I can shoot with this medawin — even a dog. I can kill with it. 
(A dog.) 

27. What makes the long moon? What! I know not. (A crescent.) 

28. I shoot thy heart, man. (An arrow in a heart.) 

29. I can kill even the white loon. (An arrow in a loon.) 

30. My friends—my friends * * * *. (Male figure.) 

31. I open my wolf-skin, and the death-struggle must follow. (A bear.) 

32. Now I wish to try my bird—once it had power. (A bird.) 

33. I can kill any animal because thunder helps me. (A bird.) 

34. I am rising. (Symbol of the sun.) 

35. Who is a spirit? He that walks with a snake — walking on the ground — he 
is a spirit. (Human figure holding a serpent.) 

36. He sat down, the great Manabozho, — his fire burns for ever. (Manabozho 
seated.) 

37. Though you speak ill of me—it is above where my friends are. (A circle 
around the head to denote the influence he has in the sky.) 

38. I walk through the sky. (Symbol of the moon.) 

39. I think you enchant with the We-ne-ze-bug-oan. (A plant.) 

49 


386 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


40. Now I have something to eat. (Hand to mouth.) 

41. Though he is a Monedo, I can by my arts take his body. (An arrow suspended 
in one hand.) 

42. Now they will eat, my women ! — Now I will bid them eat. (A circle around 
the abdomen to denote plenty.) 

43. Come up, white crow. (A crow.) 

44. I shrivel your heart up — that is my power. (An animal transpierced.) 

45. I fill my kettle for the spirit. (A lodge and kettle.) 

46. A long time since I laid myself down in the earth, ye were spirits. (A square 
and snake, to denote his residence in the earth.) 

47. I open you for a bear. (A bear.) 

48. A dead man’s skin—it is a Monedo. (Death denoted by the want of head and 
hands.) 

49. Were she on a distant island, I could make her swim over. (A circle to denote 
an island.) 

50. What is this I employ to enchant? snake-skins? (A snake.) 

51. Serpents are my friends. (A snake.) 

52. I come up from below. — I come from above. — I see the Spirit. — I see beavers. 
(Symbol of a double death’s-head.) 

53. I can make an east wind pass over the ground. (A circle with three lines in 
the direction of latitude, and two marks at the North and South, in the place of the 
poles.) 

In these devices, one of the most remarkable traits to be noticed, is the simplicity 
with which the metaphorical import is often conveyed. A waving line to denote air in 
motion, drawn from the ear, implies hearing or attention. To double the sign by 
embracing both ears, is full or perfect attention, and shows the devotion of the listener. 
A circle drawn around the body at the abdomen, denotes full means of subsistence ; 
a sitting posture, rest. An elliptical line about the shoulders, symbolizes a pack or 
burthen, and implies the possession of goods. If a square be drawn to include the 
lower limbs, it is a symbol of the female godcms or coat, and denotes that the family 
also are provided with clothing. A dish, or semicircle, filled with water and placed 
on the head, denoted by short dashes, symbolizes the waters of the clouds, and implies 
power over them. A circle completely surrounding the head, denotes the immersion 
of it in the sky, and implies miraculous influences. A lodge and a kettle represent 
the preparation for a feast. A man’s hand lifted to his mouth, denotes eating. An 
arrow symbolizes the direct power over life. 

To denote the magic influence of the Meda over the animal creation, a line is inva¬ 
riably drawn in the figure from the mouth to the heart. Power over man is sym¬ 
bolized in the same manner. The heart is usually represented by a triangle, some¬ 
times a square, and sometimes heart-shaped. These figures are, therefore, homopha- 




Plate 54-. 






PICTORIAL P F.COR ) CT A CHILFS SUCCESS fN HUNTING AND 









































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


887 


nous. The human face crossed, is used to denote the power of withdrawing life. 
The sun is represented as a rayed circle, with semicircles at two opposite sides, in the 
relative place of human ears; the moon, in the ordinary shape of the crescent. Night, 
as a finely crossed or barred sun, or circle with human legs. Vigilance, speed, and 
success in hunting, are symbolized by a human head appended to the body and 
stretched wings of a bird. If it be intended to represent superlative skill, the 
arrow is substituted as the head of this compound symbolical figure. An arrow held 
so as to direct the point inwards, is used to portray the self-acting effect of sharp 
words. The serpent appears in these as in all the Indian picture-writing, as the 
emblem of power and subtilty. It is the prime figure of their mythology, their super¬ 
stitions, and their religion. 

The subjoined figures, (Plate 54,) numbered from 1 to 17, comprise a pictorial 
record of a chief’s success in hunting and war, with the means he employed. They 
are derived from the plains of the upper Missouri, and denote some peculiarities in the 
natural history of the country, with some slight variations in the style of drawing, 
but none, whatever, in the general principles of the pictorial art. The devices evince 
the same reliance on mystical or magical influences, exerted through the skill of their 
Meda-men ; and the same ready resource of expressing the union of human and divine 
power by compound signs. 

Number 1 is a meda. That fact is denoted by rays, or a kind of symbolic feathers 
from the head. Number 2 is the accipencer spatularia, or shovel-nosed sturgeon, a fish 
peculiar to the turbid waters of the South-west. Number 3 depicts a fort. Number 
4, a plant of medicinal value. Number 5, a meda holding a charmed pipe with 
feathers. It is Number 1 in a new attitude, and he here records the success of his 
various efforts in hunting and in war. This is detailed in the remaining figures, from 
6 to 17 inclusive. No. 6, drawn with an an arrow-point, instead of a head, to a human 
body, resting on the symbol for goods or burthens, implies his success in hunting, to 
which Number 7 is auxiliary. In Number 8, by the figure of the war-club, he records 
his skill in war. In Number 9, his mystical skipetagon or medicine-sack, with four 
magic birds, he denotes his power; and in the complex figure, Number 10, he claims 
to have taken the lives or scalps of forty men. Number 11 is a minor god called 
Manitose. It is the figure of an insect. In 12 and 13 he shows that his success 
over the buffalo and elk was owing to his skill in the meda. In Number 14 he re¬ 
appears, clothed in a skin of a bear, as an exhibiter of necromantic tricks, and the 
remaining figures 15, 16, and 17, the beaver, catfish, and a fabulous animal which he 
depicts as having qualities of the brown bear and the hog, are depicted as results of 
his efficiency in the assumed character of the bear. The symbol Number 2 denotes 
his totem, and Number 3 the general area of his residence. The whole inscription 
was drawn on birch bark, in which form it could be circulated and read off or inter¬ 
preted by his people. To each figure there is the verse of a song of skill or boasting. 


388 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


In the next pictograph, same plate, the figures, numbered from 18 to 37, record 
another example of this rude kind of pictorial biography. The chief, Number 18, 
begins his efforts in fasting and tears. He represents himself, in Number 19, as unit¬ 
ing the speed of the feathered tribes and knowledge of the sky attributed’ to birds with 
great magic power. This is symbolized by the feathers which take the place of a 
human head on the figure. 2 represents a kind of fabulous reptile which was his 
totem or family arms. In 21 he denotes his power to be derived from an orbicular 
divinity, who is commonly called Monedo Ininees, or the Little Man Spirit. In 22 he 
unites the power of 19 and 20 with the skill over life, denoted by the arrow-head in 
place of the human. By 23 he depicts the union between the Monedo of the Stickle¬ 
back, drawn with a human heart, and himself, and in 24 repeats his power over and 
confidence in the wisdom of birds, before shown in 19. In 25, which is the figure of 
a bird, (his meda s'hipetagon, depicted with ears and an ornamented pipe-stem from its 
head,) he re-affirms his confidence in meda arts. 26 is the bat, an animal of mystic 
power, and one which realizes the Indian idea of a supernatural union between the 
human species and a beast and a bird. 

Thus far his boasting is without results. In the next figure (27) he appears 
fasting, tears dropping from his eyes, and he now kills a bear (28). His general 
location is shown by 29. In 30, he shows the extraordinary power and wisdom of the 
serpent, in prying into divine affairs. The heads of two serpents are therefore 
depicted as reaching above the sky. 31 is a modified form of 20. In 32, having 
traits of a quadruped, a bird and a fish, and in 33, a turtle, he gives further proofs of 
the power of his local gods, or spirits. There is, in his view, remarkable success both 
in hunting and war. But he now appears in the character of a pacificator, extending 
the ornamented pipe-stem, (35,) and smoking the pipe of peace (34). The two 
remaining signs are merely suffixed. 36 denotes the distribution of presents, and 37 
the means of feasting, the result of a public negotiation. 


7. The Higher J eesuk a win, or Sacred Prophetic Art. 

Pictorial Devices employed in communicating the Responses of the Deity; — The Symbols of the 
Prophet Chusco; —-Vision of Catherine, the Prophetess of Chegoimegon, recorded in Symbolic 
Characters; — Narrative of the Origin of these Devices, and why adopted, as given, by herself; 
—Visit of an Orbicular Spirit to the Lodge of Fasting; — Results of the first Instance of the 
exercise of her Art; — Specimens of the Hieratic or higher Prophetic Songs ; —* Hymns 
to the Sun. 

G. Sacred Jeesukawin. — There is no art of higher pretensions to supernatural or 
divine power, among the professors of the Indian mysteries, than those which are 
made in the exhibitions of the sacred Jeesukawin. It is the ancient art of the seer 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


389 


or prophet, which has been noticed as existing among all these tribes, from the earliest 
period of their discovery. To jeesuka, in the language of the Odjibwas, is to mutter 
or peep. The word is taken from the utterance of sounds of the human voice, low on 
the ground.' This is the position in which the response is made by the seer or pro¬ 
phet, who is called jossakeed. Powwow was a term of precisely the same import, used 
in the respective eras of the settlement of Virginia and of New England. Every 
tribe has a word to denote the same act, or art, and this term is inflected or varied 
according to the principles of the different languages, to distinguish the actor from the 
act, and from the place of the act,, or lodge. Thus, jeesukd, (to prophesy,) in the 
language above denoted, is rendered a noun by the inflection win, making jeesukawin 
(prophecy). To denote the actor, the sound of the letter d is added to the first person 
singular of the infinitive, and, by a rule of the permutation of the vowels, in making 
nouns personal from nouns impersonal, the long sounds of e and a are changed to o 
and e, making jossakeed, a prophet or seer. To describe the lodge, the first person 
of the infinitive singular is inflected by un, at the same time the sound of a is changed 
to au, rendering the word jeesukaun (a prophet’s lodge). 

To prepare the operator in these mysteries, for answering questions, a lodge is 
erected by driving stout poles, or saplings, in a circle, and swathing them round 
tightly from the ground to the top with skins, drawing the poles closer at each turn 
or wind, so that the structure represents a rather acute pyramid. The number 
of poles is prescribed by the jossakeed, and the kind of wood. There are, some¬ 
times, perhaps generally, ten poles, each of a different kind of wood. When 
this structure has been finished, the operator crawls in, by forcing his way under the 
skin at the ground, taking with him his drum, and scarcely anything beside. He 
begins his supplications by kneeling and bending his body very low,, so as almost to 
touch the ground. When his incantations and songs have been continued the requi¬ 
site time, and he professes to have called around him the spirits, or gods, upon whom 
he relies, he announces his readiness to the assembled multitude without, to give 
responses. And no ancient oracle of heathen mysticism — not even “Diana of the 
Ephesians,” ever more completely riveted the popular belief, than do these modern 
oracles among the North American tribes. 

The following pictographic signs, used in this art, represented in Plate 49, B, com¬ 
prise the spirits, or gods, relied upon by a noted prophet of the Ottowas, called 
Chusco. 1 They were drawn on paper from his description, at a period when he had, 
in his own words, “ thrown these symbolic devices away,” and united himself to 
a Christian mission church. They do not, therefore, fully show, but rather imitate the 
Indian method of drawing, are not intended to copy it, and are only given as exhibit¬ 
ing the mode of denoting power or divinity. He was, at this time, nearly 70; he did 


1 A term derived from Wazhusk, a muskrat. 






390 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


not hesitate to declare that he supplicated the great impersonation of the power of 
Evil, in these mysteries; he was not pressed for the actual words of his songs, and he 
did not, voluntarily, repeat them. 

Number 1 represents the turtle, an object held in great respect, in all Indian 
reminiscence. It is believed to be, in all cases, a symbol of the earth, and is 
addressed as a mother. Number 2 is the swan, a bird whose noble shape and 
motions, commend it, as the impersonation of a spiritual power. The woodpecker 
(number 3,) the crow (number 4,) and the crane (number 5,) were each addressed as 
objects of a peculiar and benign influence, and, with the two preceding, were the 
objects of his incantations and supplications. The figure of the hand (number 6,) is 
emblematic of the prophetic art. Half-Circles denote the universality of the power 
of the bird or animal figured. The Indians are not acquainted with the true figure 
of the globe, but depict the sky as a half-circle. 

Chusco practised the prophet’s art, for a great number of years, at his native village 
of L’Arbre Croche, on Lake Michigan, and also at Michillimackinac, where he died, at 
an advanced age, in 1838. There also came to reside in the vicinity of the latter 
place, a prophetess, from Chegoimegon, on the shores of Lake Superior. She was a 
descendant, in a direct line, from one of the principal Chippewa families, the noted 
Wabojeeg, who was the ruling chief in that quarter. Pictorial devices, which refer 
to the Jeesuk&win, have been less easily accessible than any other branch. There 
is a feeling of sacredness and secrecy connected with them, which prevents their 
being revealed, even to the uninitiated Indians. It is the only branch of their art of 
picture-writing, which is withheld from common use. Signs of the medawin, and the 
wdbeno; — of hunting, sepulture, war, and other objects, are more or less known to 
all, and are accessible to all, who are admitted to the secret societies. But the pro¬ 
phetic art exists by itself. It is exclusive, peculiar, personally experimental. It was 
owing to the same fact, which had brought Chusco within the pale of inquiry, that 
also revealed the gods of 0 gee-wy-ahn-oqut-o-kwa, or the prophetess of Chegoimegon. 
She had felt and acknowledged the truth of the exhortations of one of the native 
preachers from the shores of Lake Ontario, in Canada, the noted John Sunday, and 
had united herself to a missionary church. At this period, she was baptized, 
and subsequently married an Indian convert, called Wabose, or the Hare, on which 
occasion she relinquished her former name of Ogeewyahnoquot Okwa, and assumed 
that of Wabose. 

Plate 55 exhibits the gods of Catherine Wabose, as drawn by herself, and carefully 
transcribed from a larger sheet. This curious pictograph depicts the objects of a 
sacred vision, to which she looks back as the date of her revelations, and it reveals, 
at once, a singular chapter in the art of symbolic writing, and of Indian superstitions. 
The figures, which will be more fully explained by the narrative which she gave of 
her early devotion to this art, are as follows : Number 2. Ogeewyahnoquot Okwa, the 


Plate 55 



VISION OF CATHERINE WABOSE. 





























































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


391 


Prophetess. The marks at Number 3 denote the number of days of her initiatory 
fast, the day of her vision being marked with a cross. Number 4 represents the path 
of her aerial visit. Number 6, the moon, with a lambent flame. Number 9, the 
everlasting standing woman. Number 10, the Little Man-spirit. Number 11, Osha- 
Avanegeezhig, or the bright blue sky. Number 12, the upper heavens. Number 15, 
the trial of prickles. Number 13, a kind of fabulous fish. Number 8, the sun. 
Number 18, an orbicular spirit resembling a flying woodpecker. Number 19 is the 
symbol of her present name. Number 20, a kind of fish. Number 16, a symbol of 
barm. 

Catherine Wabose, the name prefigured by Number 19, was still living at the last 
accounts. She is a female of a good natural intellect, great shrewdness of observation, 
and some powers of induction and forecast, living amid mixed clans who are not 
characterized by either. She was far superior, in these respects, to the aged Ottowa 
prophet, Chusco, whose secret devices are given above. In order to understand the 
force and character of her delineations, it was deemed important to obtain the history 
of the operations of her mind under the influence of her primary periodical fast. 
This she related in the Indian tongue to Mrs. Schoolcraft, who took it down from her 
lips in the following words. The name of Catherine, it may be premised, was given 
to her on her being baptized as a member of the Methodist church. It is owing to 
this act, indeed, and her being convinced of the error of the Jeesukawin in all its 
forms, that we are indebted for the revelation of her prophetical experience. 

“ When I was a girl,” she said, “ of about twelve or thirteen years of age, my 
mother told me to look out for something that would happen to me. Accordingly, one 
morning early, in the middle of winter, I found an unusual sign, and ran off as far 
from the lodge as I could, and remained there until my mother came and found me 
out. She knew what was the matter, and brought me nearer to the family lodge, and 
bade me help her in making a small lodge of branches of the spruce tree. She told 
me to remain there, and keep away from every one, and, as a diversion, to keep 
myself employed in chopping wood, and that she would bring me plenty of prepared 
bass-wood bark to twist into twine. She told me she would come to see me in two 
days, and that, in the mean time, I must not even taste snow. 

“ I did as directed. At the end of tA\ r o days she came to see me. I thought she 
would surely bring me something to eat, but, to my disappointment, she brought 
nothing. I suffered more from thirst than hunger, though I felt my stomach gnawing. 
My mother sat quietly down and said, (after ascertaining that I had not tasted any¬ 
thing, as she directed,) 1 My child, you are the youngest of your sisters, and none are 
now left me of all my sons and children, but you four,’ alluding to her two elder 
sisters, herself, and a little son, still a mere lad. ‘ Who,’ she continued, ‘ will take 
care of us poor women ? Now, my daughter, listen to me, and try to obey. Blacken 
your face and fast really, that the Master of Life may have pity on you and me, and 


392 


• INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


on us all. Do not in the least deviate from my counsels, and in two days more I will 
come to you. Lie will help you, if you are determined to do what is right, and tell 
me whether you are favored or not, by the true Great Spirit; and if your visions are 
not good, reject them.’ So saying, she departed. 

“ I took my little hatchet and cut plenty of wood, and twisted the cord that was to 
be used in sewing ap-puh-way-oon-un, or mats, for the use of the family. Gradually 
I began to feel less appetite, but my thirst continued; still I was fearful of touching 
the snow to allay it, by sucking it, as my mother had told me that if I did so, though 
secretly, the Great Spirit would see me, and the lesser spirits also, and that my fasting 
would be of no use. So I continued to fast till the fourth day, when my mother came 
with a little tin dish, and filling it with snow, she came to my lodge, and was well 
pleased to find that I had followed her injunctions. She melted the snow, and told 
me to drink it. I did so, and felt refreshed, but had a desire for more, which she told 
me would not do, and I contented myself with what she had given me. She again 
told me to get and follow a good vision; a vision that might not only do us good, but 
also benefit mankind, if I could. She then left me, and for two days she did not come 
near me, nor any human being, and I was left to my own reflections. The night of 
the sixth day I fancied a voice called to me, and said, 1 Poor child! I pity your con¬ 
dition ; come, you are invited this wayand I thought the voice proceeded from a 
certain distance from my lodge. I obeyed the summons, and, going to the spot from 
which the voice came, found a thin shining path, like a silver cord, which I followed. 
It led straight forward, and, it seemed, upward (No. 5). After going a short distance, 
I stood still, and saw on my right hand the new moon, with a flame rising from the 
top like a candle, which threw around a broad light (No. 6). On the left appeared 
the sun, near the point of its setting (No. 8). I went on, and I beheld on my right 
the face of Kau-ge-gay-be-qua, or the everlasting standing woman, (No. 5,) who told 
me her name, and said to me, ‘ I give you my name, and you may give it to another. 
I also give you that which I have, life everlasting. I give you long life on the earth, 
and skill in saving life in others. Go, you are called on high.’ 

“ I went on, and saw a man standing, with a large circular body, and rays from his 
head, like horns. (No. 6.) He said, ‘ Fear not; my name is Monido-Wininees, or the 
Little Man-spirit. I give this name to your first son. It is my life. Go to the place 
you are called to visit.’ I followed the path till I could see that it led up to an 
opening in the sky, when I heard a voice, and standing still, saw the figure of a man 
standing near the path, whose head was surrounded with a brilliant halo, and his 
breast was covered with squares. (No. 11.) He said to me, ‘Look at me; my name 
is O-Shau-wau-e-geeghick, or the Bright Blue Sky. I am the veil that covers the 
opening into the sky. Stand and listen to me. Do not be afraid. I am going to 
endow you with gifts of life, and put you in array that you may withstand and 
endure.’ Immediately I saw myself encircled with bright points, which rested 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


393 


against me like needles, but gave me no pain, and they fell at my feet. (No. 9.) 
This was repeated several times, and at each time they fell to the ground. He said, 
‘Wait, and do not fear, till I have said and done all I am about to do.’ I then felt 
different instruments, first like awls, and then like nails, stuck into my flesh, but 
neither did they give me pain, but, like the needles, fell at my feet as often as they 
appeared. He then said, 4 That is good,’ meaning my trial by these points; 4 you will 
see length of days. Advance a little farther,’ said he. I did so, and stood at the 
commencement of the opening. 4 You have arrived,’ said he, 4 at the limit you cannot 
pass. I give you my name; you can give it to another. Now, return ! Look around 
you. There is a conveyance for you. (No. 13.) Do not be afraid to get on its back, 
and when you get to your lodge, you must take that which sustains the human body.’ 
I turned, and saw a kind of fish swimming in the air, and getting upon it as directed, 
was carried back with celerity, my hair floating behind me in the air. And as soon 
as I got back, my vision ceased. 

44 In the morning, being the sixth day of my fast, my mother came with a little bit 
of dried trout. But such was my sensitiveness to all sounds, and my increased power 
of scent, produced by fasting, that before she came in sight I heard her while a great 
way off; and when she came in I could not bear the smell of the fish, or herself 
either. She said, 4 1 have brought something for you to eat, only a mouthful, to 
prevent your dying.’ She prepared to cook it, but I said, 4 Mother, forbear, I do not 
wish to eat it — the smell is offensive to me.’ She accordingly left off preparing to 
cook the fish, and again encouraged me to persevere, and try to become a comfort to 
her in her old age and bereaved state, and left me. 

44 1 attempted to cut wood as usual, but in the effort I fell back on the snow from 
exhaustion, and lay some time; at last I made an effort and rose, and went to my 
lodge and lay down. I again saw the vision, and each person who had before spoken 
to me, and heard the promises of different kinds made to me, and the songs. I went 
the same path which I had pursued before, and met with the same reception. I also 
had another vision, or celestial visit, which I shall presently relate. My mother came 
again on the seventh day, and brought me some pounded com boiled in snow water, 
for, she said, I must not drink water from lake or river. After taking it I related my 
vision to her. She said it was good, and spoke to me to continue my fast three days 
longer. I did so: at the end of which she took me home, and made a feast in honor 
of my success, and invited a great many guests. I was told to eat sparingly, and to 
take nothing too hearty or substantial; but this was unnecessary, for my abstinence 
had made my senses so acute, that all animal food had a gross and disagreeable odor. 

44 After the seventh day of my fast, (she continued,) while I was lying in my lodge, 
I saw a dark round object descending from the sky, like a round stone, and enter my 
lodge. As it came near I saw that it had small feet and hands like a human body. 
It spoke to me, and said, 4 1 give you the gift of seeing into futurity, that you may 
50 


394 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


use it for the benefit of yourself and the Indians — your relations and tribes-people.’ 
It then departed, but as it went away it assumed wings, and looked to me like the 
red-headed woodpecker in flight. 

“ In consequence of being thus favored, I assumed the arts of the Jeesukawin, and a 
prophetess, but never those of a Wabeno. The first time I exercised the prophetical 
art was at the strong and repeated solicitations of my friends. It was in the winter 
season, and they were then encamped west of the Wisacoda, or Brule river of Lake 
Superior, and between it and the plains west. There were, besides my mother’s 
family and relatives, a considerable number of families. They had been some time at 
the place, and were near starving, as they could find no game. One evening the 
chief of the party came into my mother’s lodge. I had lain down, and was supposed 
to be asleep, and he requested of my mother that she would allow me to try my skill 
to relieve them. My mother spoke to me, and after some conversation, she gave her 
consent. I told them to build the Jee-suk-aun, or prophet’s lodge, strong, and gave 
particular directions for it. I directed that it should consist of ten posts or saplings, 
each of a different kind of wood, which I named. When it was finished, and tightly 
wound with skins, the entire population of the encampment assembled around it, and 
I went in, taking only a small drum. I immediately knelt down, and holding my 
head near the ground in a position, as near as may be, prostrate, began beating my 
drum, and reciting my songs or incantations. The lodge commenced shaking violently, 
by supernatural means. I knew this by the compressed current of air above, and the 
noise of motion. This being regarded by me and by all without as a proof of the 
presence of the spirits I consulted, I ceased beating and singing, and lay still, waiting 
for questions, in the position I had at first assumed. 

et The first question put to me was in relation to the game, and where it was to be 
found. The response was given by the orbicular spirit, who had appeared to me. He 
said, 1 How short-sighted you are! If you will go in a west direction you will find 
game in abundance.’ Next day the camp was broken up, and they all moved west¬ 
ward, the hunters, as usual, going far ahead. They had not proceeded far beyond the 
bounds of their former hunting circle when they came upon tracks of moose, and that 
day they killed a female, and two young moose nearly full-grown. They pitched their 


encampment anew, and had abundance of animal food in this new position. 

“ My reputation was established by this success, and I was afterwards noted in the 
tribe in the art of a Meda-woman, and sung the songs which I have given to you. 
About four years after, I was married to 0 Mush Kow Egeezhick, or the Strong Sky, 
who was a very active and successful hunter, and kept his lodge well supplied with 
food ; and we lived happy. After I had had two children, a girl and a boy, we went 
out, as is the custom of the Indians in the spring, to visit the white settlements. One 
night, while we were encamped at the head of the portage at Pauwating, (the Falls 
of St. Mary’s,) angry words passed between my husband and a half-Frenchman named 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


395 


Gaultier, who, with his two cousins, in the course of the dispute, drew their knives 
and a tomahawk, and stabbed and cut him in four or five places, in his body, head, and 
thighs. This happened the first year that the Americans came to that place, (1822.) 
He had gone out, at a late hour in the evening, to visit the tent of Gaultier. Having 
been urged by one of the trader’s men to take liquor that evening, and it being already 
late, I desired him not to go, but to defer his visit till next day; and, after he had 
left the lodge, I felt a sudden presentiment of evil, and I went after him, and renewed 
my efforts in vain. He told me to return, and as I had two children in the lodge, the 
youngest of whom, a boy, was still in his cradle, and then ill, I sat up with him late, 
and waited and waited, till a late hour, and then fell asleep from exhaustion. I slept 
very sound. The first I knew was a violent shaking from a girl, a niece of Gaultier’s, 
who told me my husband and Gaultier were all the time quarrelling. I arose, and 
went up the stream to Gaultier’s camp-fire; it was nearly out, and I tried to make it 
blaze. I looked into his tent, but all was dark, and not a soul there. They had 
suddenly fled, although I did not, at the moment, know the cause. I tried to make a 
light to find my husband, but could find nothing dry, for it had rained very hard the 
day before. After being out a while my vision became clearer, and, turning toward 
the river side, I saw a dark object lying near the shore, on a grassy opening. I was 
attracted by something glistening, which turned out to be his ear-rings. I thought he 
was asleep, and in stooping to awake him I slipped, and fell on my knees. I had 
slipped in his blood on the grass, and, putting my hand on his face, found him dead. 
In the morning the Indian agent came with soldiers from the fort to see what had 
happened, but the murderer and all his bloody gang of relatives had fled. The agent 
gave orders to have the body buried in the old Indian burial-ground below the Falls. 

“ My aged mother was encamped about a mile off at this time. I took my two 
children in the morning, and fled to her lodge. She had just heard of the murder, 
and was crying as I entered. I reminded her that it was an act of Providence, to 
which we must submit. She said it was for me and my poor helpless children that 
she was crying — that I was left, as she had been years before, with nobody to provide 
for us. With her I returned to my native country at Chegoimegan on Lake Superior.” 

The preceding narrative is taken from the verbal relation of Catherine Wabose, or 
Ogeewyahnackwut Oquay, who is now in about the forty-first year of her age. A few 
facts may be added to indicate the steps by which she finally renounced a reliance 
on these mystical ceremonies, and was led to communicate the information, together 
with the kekenowin .of her visions, and songs subjoined. In the third year after the 
assassination of her first husband, she married Minanockwut, or the Fair Cloud, his 
half-brother, by whom she had two children, both daughters. He was in a few years 
attacked with a complaint of the head, which affected his reason, and of which he 
died. It was in the winter season that this happened, and as they were inland at 
their sugar camp, she, with the aid of her children, placed the corpse on a hand-sled, 


396 INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 

and drew it many miles through, the woods to the river s banks, that he might be 
buried with his tribe. 

She was still called to bear other trials in the course of a few years, which would 
have broken down a mind of less native strength than hers. Her son, by Strong Sky, 
sickened at an age when he began to be useful, and after lingering for a time, died. 
A day or two before his departure, he related to her such a dream of the Great Spirit, 
as He is known and worshipped by the whites, and of his being clothed by him with 
a white garment, that her mind was much affected by it, and led to question in some 
measure, the soundness of her religious views. Not long afterwards one of her little 
daughters was also removed by death, and according to her own apt interpretation of 
a part of her virginal vision, she seemed, indeed, to be pricked with metallic points. 
While these dispensations rested deeply on her mind, and she felt herself to be 
the subject of afflictions which appeared to have an ulterior object, the Odjibwa evan¬ 
gelist, John Sunday, visited that part of the country, and explained to her the doc¬ 
trine of a better revelation which came, indeed, “ from above,” and under his teach¬ 
ing, she renounced the calling of a prophetess, which she had so long practised, and 
became a member of the Methodist Episcopal church, and was baptized by the name 
of Catherine. She says, that the wine she partook of at the communion-table at that 
time, and at subsequent times, is the only form of spirits she has ever tasted. Her 
trials were not, however, at an end, though they were mitigated by reflections of a 
consolatory character. The spring of 1836 developed, in the constitution of her eldest 
daughter and child, Charlotte Jane, a rapid consumption, which brought her in the 
month of April to her grave, in her seventeenth year. This young girl exhibited very 
amiable traits of character, united with an agreeable person. She was taken into my 
family, after the assassination of her father, in 1822, and educated and instructed 
under the personal care of Mrs. Schoolcraft, who cherished her as a tender plant from 
the wilderness. When she had mastered her letters, her catechism, and the com¬ 
mandments, at an early age, she was led on by degrees, from one attainment to 
another in moral knowledge, till she had acquired the intelligence and deportment, 
which fitted her to take her place in civilized life. She united with the Presbyterian 
church at Michillimackinac, and is buried in its precincts, having exhibited to the end 
of her life very pleasing and increasing proofs of her reliance upon, and acceptance by 
a crucified Eedeemer. 

Prior to the death of her daughter, Catherine had married her third husband, in 
Nau-We-Kwaish-kum, alias James Wabose, an Odjibwa, who was also, and continues 
to be a member of the Methodist society. By this marriage she had two children, 
both males, the loss of one of whom has been added to the number of her trials. But 
the only effect of this bereavement was to strengthen her faith, and by daily renewals 
of her confidenee in the Saviour to establish herself in piety. 

These particulars, it is conceived, will afford a clear and satisfactory chain of 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


397 


evidence of the truth of her narrative, and the reasons why she has been willing to 
impart secrets of her past life which have heretofore been studiously concealed, as she 
remarks, even from her nearest friends. 


2 . 

3. 

4. 

5 . 

6 . 
7. 


9. 


The following comprises an explanation of her Kekenowin (Plate 55), which have 
been mentioned in the account of her vision:— 

Figure 1. A lodge of separation and fasting. 

Ogeewyahn akwut oquay. 

Denotes the number of days she fasted. 

The day on which the vision appeared. 

The point from which the first voice proceeded, and the commencement 
of the path she pursued. 

The new moon, with a lambent flame. 

The sun, near its approach to the horizon. 

The figure of a man in the sun, holding some object which she did not 
recognize, but supposes to have been a book. 

The head of a female spirit called Kaugegaybekwa, or the Everlasting 
Woman. 

10. A male spirit, called Monedowininees, or the Little Spirit Man. 

11. The principal spirit revealed to her, called Ozhawwunuhkogeezhig, or the 
Blue Sky. 

12. An orifice in the heavens, called Pug-un-ai-au-geezhig. 

13. A nondescript fish prepared to carry her back. 

14. Ogeewyahn ackwut oquay, sitting on the fish. 

15. The ultimate point attained by her in her bright path leading to the sky, 
where she underwent the trial of symbolical prickles. 

16. A magic arrow. 

17. Symbol of a woodpecker. 

18. Symbol of her husband’s name. 

19. Symbol of the catfish. 


The subjoined specimens of her hieratic songs and hymns are taken down verbatim. 
It is a peculiarity observed in this and other instances of the kind, that the words of 
these chants are never repeated by the natives without the tune or air, which was 
full of intonation, and uttered in so hollow and suspended, or inhaled a voice, that it 
would require a practised composer to note it down. The chorus is not less peculiarly 
fixed, and some of its guttural tones are startling. These hymns are to be read from 
top to bottom. 


398 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


* 



Prophetic 

Powers. 



1 . 



Wi 

Wa 

Wi 

Wa 

Ya 

Win 

Ya 

Win 

Kwa 

Dah 

Kwa 

Dah 

Yaug 

Go 

Yaug 

Go 

Gee 

Je 

Gee 

Je 

Zhik 

Naun 

Zhik 

Naun 

Au 

In 

Au 

In 


A 


A (Repeat.) 


At the place of light— ^ 

At the end of the sky — 

I (the Great Spirit) 

Come and hang 

Bright sign. 

(Chorus of strongly accented and deeply uttered syllables.) 


Yau 

Yau 

Ne 

Ne 

Mud 

Mud 

Wa 

Wa 

Aus 

Aus 

Se 

Se 

Doan 

Doan 

Ain 

Ain 

Yaun 

Yaun 


(Repeat.) 
Lo! with the sound of my voice, 

(The prophet’s voice) 

I make my sacred lodge to shake — 
(By unseen hands my lodge to shake,) 
My sacred lodge. 
Chorus, &c. 


3. 

Haih! Wau Zhik 

Wau Nah A. 

Bish Kwud 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


399 


Kau Oong. 

Gau Haih. 

Gee Gee (Repeat.) 

Haih! the white bird of omen, 

He flies around the clouds and skies— 

(He sees,— unuttered sight!) 

Around the clouds and skies — 

By his bright eyes I see — I see — I know. 
Chorus, &c. 


The following chants embody the responses of the Deity invoked. They sufficiently 
denote a fact, which has indeed obtruded itself in other instances, that the sun is not 
only often employed as a symbol of the Great Spirit, but is worshipped, also, as the 
Great Spirit himself. 


1. Chants to the Deity. 

1 . 

Och auw naun na wau do 
Och auw naun na wau do 
Och auw naun na wau do 
Och auw naun na wau do. 

Heh ! heh! heh ! heh ! 

I am the living body of the Great Spirit above, 

(The Great Spirit, the Ever-living Spirit above,) 

The living body of the Great Spirit, 

(Whom all must heed.) 

(Sharp and peculiar chorus, untranslatable.) 

2 . 

Mish e mon dau kwuh 
Mish e mon dau kwuh 
Ne maun was sa hah kee 
Ne maun was sa hah kee. 

Way, ho! ho! ho! ho! 

I am the Great Spirit of the sky, 

The overshadowing power, 

I illumine earth, 

I illumine heaven. 

(Slow, hollow, peculiar chorus.) 


400 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


3. 

Ah wauli wa naun e dowli 
All wauh wa naun e dowli 
Ah wauh wa naun e dowli 
Ah wauh wa naun e dowli. 

Way, ho ! ho ! ho ! ho ! 

Ah say! what Spirit, or Body, is this Body? 

(That fills the world around, 

Speak, man !) ah say ! 

What Spirit, or Body, is this Body ? 

(Chorus as in the preceding, with voice and drum.) 

2. Hymns to the Sun. 

4. 

Kee zhig maid wa woash kum aun 

Kee zhig maid wa woash kum aun. (Repeat four times.) 
A ! a ! a! ha! aha! 

The sky or day I tread upon, that makes a noise. 

(I Ge Zis — Maker of light.) 

5 . 

Wain je gwo dow aid, gee zhick o ka 
Ap pe wain ah ge me e go yaun. 

A ! a ! a ! ha! aha! 

The place where it sinks down — the maker of day. 

When I was first ordained to be. (I Ge Zis.) 

3. In the Medawin. 

6 . 

Nim ba na see wa yaun e 

Nim ba na see wa yaun e. (Repeat four times.) 

A ! a! a! ha! aha! 

My bird’s skin — my bird’s skin, &c. 

7. 

Ning ga kake o wy aun a 

Ning ga kake o wy aun a (Repeat four times.) 

Ap pee i aun je ug wa. 

A ! a! a! ha! aha! 

My hawk’s skin—my hawk’s skin, 

The time I transformed it, &c. 




llafr^G 






WAR ami LOVE SONCS. 


Acfcerrnnri Ijili'Wjft BniatlwHy N 


mrrrr . rrn;,-] 












CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


401 


4. To the Great Spirit. 

8 . 

In ah wau how mon e do 
In ah wau how mon e do 
I au au jim ind 

Gee zhik oong a bid. (Repeat four times.) 

A ! a ! a! ha ! aha ! 

Look thou at the Spirit. It is he that is spoken of who stays our lives —who abides 
in the sky. 

Such is the Indian system of the higher Jeesukawin. To speak, as it were, from 
the secrecy of the Indian mind, the symbols illustrative of its superstitions, requires 
perseverance of investigation, under the most favorable circumstances. Questions 
which are resisted in one form, or in a particular frame of mind, on the part of the 
respondent, may be successfully replied to, under other phases of feeling, or caution, 
or suspicion. Pride of opinion, and of consistency, is as obstinate in the Indian as 
in the European mind, but is more difficult to conquer, in proportion as it is left in its 
original state of darkness, or error. Even where Christianity has apparently given 
new grounds to hope, and modified its original views of life, if not radically changed 
them, there is still a bias in favor of these superstitious rites, which is very perceptible. 


8. Symbols of War, Love, and History. 

Symbolic Figures in the Departments of the War Dance, and of Love. — Translation of a Love 
Song and two War Songs. —Further examples of these Devices. — Their ultimate and most 
permanent mode of employment in recording Historical Events, in the Inscriptions, called 
Muzzinabikon. — Account of two separate Inscriptions from the Banks of Lake Superior, 
recording the crossing of that Lake, by a War Party, in Canoes, led by Myeengun. — Sym¬ 
bolic Alphabet of the Kekewin and the Kekenowin. 

H. Nundobunewin, or War. —The devices used to commemorate the incidents of 
war, among the northern tribes, will now be brought forward. Most of these are 
employed to excite the memory in the recital of songs preparatory to the setting out 
of war parties. It will be seen by the annexed figures, that these devices are chiefly 
of the ke-ke-no-win, or highest grade of the symbolic. 

The figures from 1 to 4, Plate 56, C., comprise what is deemed a continuous song, 
and although each stanza of it may be sung by a separate individual, the general 
theme is preserved. Figure 1 represents the sun, which is to be regarded in this 
connection as not only the source of light and knowledge to men, but a symbol 
51 


402 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


of vigilance. The warrior merely sings — I am rising. In figure 2 he assumes 
to possess this power himself, and by one hand pointing to the earth, and another 
extended to the sky, declares his wide-spreading power and fearful prowess. He 
sings, I take the sky — I take the earth. In number 3 he appears under the symbol 
of the moon, denoting the night to be the season of secrecy and warlike enterprise. 
With a proud feeling of exaltation, he sings — I walk through the sky. In figure 4 
he personifies Venus, here called the Eastern Woman, or the Evening Star, who is 
thus appealed to, as a witness of his valor and warlike cunning. He sings, The 
Eastern Woman calls. The entire song as thus expressed, in the native dialect, is 
this: 

1st War Song. 

1. Tshe be moak sa aun. 

2. Ma mo yah na geezhig 
Ma mo yah, na ahkee 

Mo mo yah na. 

3. Bai mo sa yah na, geezhigong 
Bai mo sa yah na. 

4. Wa bun ong tuz-ze kwai 
Ne wau ween, ne go ho ga. 

Divested, in some degree, of its symbolic shape, the verses may be read thus: 

1. I am rising to seek the war-path. 

2. The earth and the sky are before me. 

3. I walk by day and by night. 

4. And the evening star is my guide. 

In the ensuing six figures, (A, Plate 56,) a like unity of theme is preserved. 
Figure 1 personifies an active and swift-footed warrior; he is therefore depicted with 
wings. He sings,—I wish to have the body of the swiftest bird. In No. 2 he is re¬ 
presented as standing under the morning star, which, as a sentinel, is set to watch, or 
should terminate his nocturnal enterprise. He sings,—Every day I look at you; the 
half of the day I sing my song. In No. 3, he is depicted as standing under the centre 
of the sky, with his war-club and rattle. He sings, — I throw away my body. In 
figure 4, the eagle, a symbol of carnage, is represented as performing the circuit of the 
sky. He sings,—The birds take a flight in the air. In figure 5, he imagines himself 
to be slain on the field of battle. He sings, — Full happy am I to be numbered with 
the slain. And in figure 6, he consoles himself with the idea of posthumous fame, 
under the symbol of a spirit in the sky. He sings, — The spirits on high repeat my 
name. 


2 d War-Song. 

1. I wish for the speed of a bird, to pounce on the enemy. 

2. I look to the morning star to guide my steps. 


403 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

3. I devote my body to battle. 

4. I take courage from the flight of eagles. 

5. I am willing to be numbered with the slain. 

6. For even then my name shall be repeated with praise. 

It is not deemed necessary to encumber these pages with the native words, which 

are before me, nor with any farther attempt to disencumber them from their symbolic 
meanings. The system adopted in the preceding song will apply to this, and to all 
others, which shall be selected with similar care and symbolic propriety in the arrange¬ 
ment. By this method, these songs, which have been usually exhibited as meagre 
and disjointed portions of rhapsodies, are shown to have a consistency and import 
which may well be supposed to inspire the singer with martial warmth, and prepare 
his mind for deeds of daring. The symbolic pictures form, indeed, the true key to 
the nug-a-moon-un, or songs, and show to what extent the mnemonic symbols are 
applied. 

I. Sageawix, or Love. — As a proper appendage to this part of the inquiry, I 
subjoin the seven following mnemonic symbols of love. (B, Plate 56.) The subject is 
one which will scarcely bear to be treated of at much length, for which, indeed, but 
little space can be assigned, and yet, without some allusion to it, there would be mani¬ 
festly a branch of the inquiry, and not an unimportant one, wanting. And here also, 
as in war, in the meda, and in the symbols of hunting, the theme is to be regarded 
as unbroken. 


Love-Song. 

Figure 1 represents a person who affects to be invested with a magic power to 
charm the other sex, which makes him regard himself as a monedo, or god. He 
depicts himself as such, and therefore sings—It is my painting that makes me a god. 
In No. 2, he further illustrates this idea by his power in music. He is depicted as 
beating a magic drum. He sings — Hear the sounds of my voice, of my song; it is 
my voice. In No. 3, he denotes the effects of his necromancy. He surrounds himself 
with a secret lodge. He sings — I cover myself in sitting down by her. In No. 4, he 
depicts the intimate union of their affections, by joining two bodies with one continu¬ 
ous arm. He sings — I can make her blush, because I hear all she says of me. In 
No. 5, he represents her on an island. He sings—Were she on a distant island, I 
could make her swim over. In No. 6, she is depicted asleep. He boasts of his magical 
powers, which are capable of reaching her heart. He sings — Though she was far off, 
even on the other hemisphere. Figure 7 depicts a naked heart. He sings—1 speak 
to your heart. Still further divested of their symbolic dress, and relieved of some 
points of peculiarity, the entire nugamoon may be thus read : 

1. It is my form and person that makes me great. 

2. Hear the voice of my song — it is my voice. 


404 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


3. I shield' myself with secret coverings. 

4. All your thoughts are known to me — blush ! 

5. I could draw you hence, were you on a distant island; 

6. Though you were on the other hemisphere. 

7. I speak to your naked heart. 

That the system of mnemonic symbols may be clearly understood, and the kind of 
aid which it imparts to the memory appreciated, it is applied, in the following example, 
to the eight verses of the latter part of the 30th of Proverbs, from the 25th to the 
32d inclusive. The English version of these, being in every one’s hand, need not be 
quoted. The following is their translation in that now rare and extraordinary effort 
of literary-mission labor, Eliot’s Bible in the Massachusetts language. 

Yerse 25. Annunekqsog missinnaog matta manuhkesegig, qut onch quaquoshwe- 
tamwog ummeetsuong au oo nepunae. 

26. Ogkoshquog nananoochumwesuog, qut onch weekitteaog qussukquanehta. 

27. Chansompsog wanne ukeihtassootamooeog, qut onch sohhamwog nag wame 
moeu chipwushaog. 

28. Mamunappeht anunuhqueohts wunnutchegash, kah appu tahsootamukkom- 
ukqut. 

29. Nishwinash nish wanumaushomoougish nux yauunash tapeunkgshaumooash. 

30. Quonnonu noh anue menuhkesit kenugke puppinashimwut, kah matta qush- 
kehtauoou howausinne. 

31. Quohgunonu, nomposhimwe goats wonk, kah ketasioot, noh wanue kowan 
ayeuuhkone waabehtauunk. 

32. Mattammagwe usseas, tah shinadtkuhhog, asah matanatamas, ponish kenutcheg 
kuttoonut. 

The symbolic figures represented in A, Plate 47, may be put to denote the import 
of the principal object of each verse, the symbol being taken as the key. 


Number 

.25. 

An ant. 

« 

26. 

A coney. 

u 

27. 

A locust. 

u 

28. 

A spider. 

u 

29. 

A river — a symbol of motion. 

u 

30. 

A lion. 

cc 

31. 

A greyhound. 2. A he-goat. 3. A king. 

cc 

32. 

A man foolishly lifting up himself to take hold of the heavens. 


It must be quite evident that while this primitive mode of notation is wholly inade¬ 
quate to the purpose of recording sounds, any farther than the mere names of the 
objects prefigured by the key-picture, yet, the words themselves having been pre¬ 
viously committed to memory, these key-pictures are a strong aid and stimulant to the 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


405 


memory. This is precisely the scope and object of the Indian bark pictographs and 
music boards, and other modes of drawings intended to denote songs or chants. 
And where many such are to be sung, as is the case with the Medas and singers in 
their public ceremonies, the songs being generally short, it may be conceived to be a 
H system of much utility to them. It is, at once, their book and musical scale. 

K. Muzzinabikon, Rock-Writing or History.— The application of picture-writing 
among the tribes has now been traced, from its first or simple drawings in the inscrip¬ 
tion of totems and memorials on grave-posts, through the various methods adopted to 
convey information on sheets of bark, scarified trees, and other substances, and through 
the institutions and songs of the Meda, and the Wabeno societies, the mysteries of the 
Jeesukawin, the business of hunting, and the incidents of war and affection. It re¬ 
mains only to consider their use in an historical point of view, or in recording, in a 
more permanent form than either of the preceding instances, such transactions in the 
affairs of a wandering forest life as appear to them to have demanded more labored 
attempts to preserve. 

The term kekewin is applied to picture-writing generally. Another syllable, (no) 
is thrown into the centre of the word, when the figures are more particularly designed 
to convey instruction. The term then is kekenowin. It is the distinction which the 
native vocabulary appears to establish, between simple representative figures and 
symbols. By reference to a prior page, other terms, descriptive of other means of com¬ 
municating information by signs, or emblems, will be observed. The term Muz-zin-a- 
bik-on, is strictly applied to inscriptions on rocks, or, as the word literally implies, 
Rock-writing. Izzi is one of those general stock roots in the language, denoting generic 
matter or substance, which enters into a variety of compound words and phrases. As 
the vowel, i, is permutable under the influence of the juxtaposition of various prefixed 
consonants, the sound changes frequently, to uzzi, ozzi, &c. The letter M, as an 
. initial in compound words in this language, is generally derived from the adjective, 
Monaudud, (a bad thing, or substance,) and denotes a bad or defective quality. In 
this instance, its meaning and office is, evidently, to denote a mysterious import; 
most things of a mysterious nature being associated in the Indian mind with fear, or 
a bad quality. Aubik, the third syllable, is rock, and the termination in on, (pro¬ 
nounced oan,) is a common inanimate plural. Muzziniegun, a single letter, book, 
writing, or piece of written or printed paper, derives its first two syllables from the 
same roots, and has the same meaning. Its termination in egun, instead of aubick, is 
from jeegun, a generic word for implement, or anything artificially made. The word 
is frequently, most frequently, indeed, contracted to gun; and in this instance means 
paper—for which the natives had no word. The precise difference between the two 
terms, therefore, is, that between paper-writing and rock-writing. 

Of rock-writing, or muzzinabikon, there are many examples in North America; but 
most of the known inscriptions consist of single, or at most, but few figures. Allusion 


406 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


has been made to several instances of this kind, which are generally in the simple 
representative character. There has been noticed a striking disposition in the per¬ 
sons inscribing these figures, to place them in positions on the rock, not easily acces¬ 
sible, as on the perpendicular face of a cliff, to reach which, some artificial contrivance 
must have been necessary. The object clearly was, to produce a feeling of surprise 
or mystery. The mottled and shaded appearance on the imposing line of coast on 
Lake Superior, called the Pictured Rocks, is not at all the result of pictured writing. 
No artificial writing of any kind has been noticed there. The term has been intro¬ 
duced into popular use to denote a geological effect analogous to that for which, in 
mineralogy the Germans have the appropriate term of ange laufenen farben , or irri- 
descent colours. 1 

There exists, however, an inscription at a point west of this precipitous portion of 
the coast, on the banks of the Namabin, or Carp River, about half a day’s march from its 
mouth. The following copy of this inscription (Plate 57) was made by the chief Chin- 
gwauk, and drawn on birch bark. He also explained the symbols and gave its full 
interpretation. There lived on that stream, as he states, years ago, a chief of the 
name of Myeengun, or the Wolf of the Mermaid, (or rather, as the language has it, 
Merman totem,) who was skilled in the Meda, and was invested by the opinion of his 
people, with a character of much skill and secret power. He practised the arts and 
ceremonies of the Meda, and made cheekwondum. By these means he acquired influ¬ 
ence, and -raised a war party which crossed Lake Superior in canoes. The expedition 
was not barren in other respects of success, but this exploit was considered as a direct 
evidence of the influence of his gods, and it gave him so much credit, that he deter¬ 
mined to perpetuate the memory of it, by a Muz-zin-a-bik-on. He made two inscrip¬ 
tions, one on the south, and the other on the north shores of the lake. Both were on 
the precipitous faces of rocks. Copies of both are presented. These copies were made 
with the point of a knife, on a roll of bark of firm texture, and exhibit an evidence of 
ingenuity and dexterity in the art, which is remarkable. They are transcribed in the 
two following pictographs, marked A and B., (Plate 57.) 

Figure 1 (A) represents the chief Myeengun, whose family totem is given under 
the form of his lodge, (Number 2.) This lodge is to be regarded as ancestral. The 
totem Nebanabee, or the Merman, No. 3, fills it, and symbolically denotes that all its 
members bear the same mark. His individual name is given by Figure No. 4, the 
wolf. The whole of the remaining eight figures, are symbolical representations of the 
various spirits, or gods, upon whom he relied. Number 5 is the Misshibezhieu, or 
fabulous panther. The drawing shows a human head crowned with horns, the usual 
symbol of power, with the body and claws of a panther, and a mane. The name of 


1 This tern denotes an effect merely, but conveys no idea of the cause or manner of producing the effect, 
■which is so graphically denoted in the German. 




/W 



Plate 57 



























































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


407 


the panther, Misshibezhieu, is a great lynx. The crosses upon the body denote night, 
and are supposed to indicate the time proper for the exercise of the powers it conveys. 
Number 6 is a representation of the same figure without a mane, and without crosses, 
and denotes the exercise of its powers by day-light. In Number 7 he depicts his 
reliance upon Mong, or the loon; in Number 8, upon Mukwah, or the black bear; 
and in Number 9, on Moaz, or the moose. Each of these objects is emblematic of 
some property, or qualification, desired by the warrior. The loon, whose cry foretells 
changes of the weather, denotes forecast; the bear, strength and sagacity; and the 
moose, wariness, being the most keen of hearing and wary of any of the quadrupeds. 
In Number 10, he depicts a kind of fabulous serpent resembling a saurian, having 
two feet, and armed with horns. Both these appendages are believed to be symbolic 
of its swiftness and power over life. It is called Misshikinahik, or Great Serpent. 
In Number 11 there is shown a reptile of analogous powers, but it has a body mounted 
on four legs, and is therefore more clearly of the lizard, or saurian type. The name 
is, however, the same. 

Thus far are detailed the means and powers upon ■tfdiich the chief relied, and these 
were (symbolically) inscribed in the region of his residence, on the southern shores 
of the lake. The results of the expedition are given in pictograph B, Plate 57, which 
was painted on the face of a rock at W azhenaubikiniguning Augawong, or the Place 
of the Writing, or Inscription Rock, on the north shores of Lake Superior, Canada. 
It is near a bay, between this point and Namabin River, that the lake was crossed. 
The passage was made in five canoes of various sizes, and numbering, in all, fifty-one 
men. Of these, sixteen were in number one, nine in number two, ten in number three, 
eight in number four, and eight in number five. The first canoe was led by Kish- 
kemunasee, or the Kingfisher, (figure Number 6,) who was his chief auxiliary. The 
crossing occupied three days, depicted by the figure of three suns, under a sky and a 
rainbow, in Number 7. In Numbers 8, 9, and 10 he introduces three objects of 
reliance, not previously brought forward. Number 8 is the Mikenok, or land-tortoise, 
an important symbol, which appears to imply the chief point of triumph, that is, 
reaching land. Number 9 is the horse, and reveals the date of this adventure as 
being subsequent to the settlement of Canada. The Meda is depicted on his back, 
crowned with feathers, and holding up his drum-stick, such as is used in the mystic 
incantations. Number 10 is the Migazee, or eagle, the prime symbol of courage. In 
Number 11 he records the aid he received from the fabulous night panther — this 
panther, by the way, is generally located in the clouds — and in Number 12 a like 
service is recorded to the credit of the great serpent. 

The following explanations of Plates 58 and 59, exhibit a general synopsis of the 
symbolic and representative devices in common use. 

Number 1. Chronological and arithmetical devices. 

“ 2. Symbol of a headless body. 


408 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Number 3. Symbol of a headless body. 

“ 4. Devices representing the human head. 

“ 5. Death’s head—symbolically eclipsed, or veiled. 

u 6. The human figure—representative. 

“ 7. Symbol of a man walking at night, or under the moon. 

“ 8. Symbol of the sun. 

“ 9. Do. do. 

“ 10. A spirit, or man enlightened from on high, having the head of the sun. 

u 11. Totemic mark of the sun. 

“ 12. The moon — dry quarter. 

“ 13. The moon—flaming. 

“ 14. The moon — eclipsed, or at night. 

“ 15. A man’s head, with ears open to conviction. 

“ 16. A winged female. 

“ 17. Clouds. 

“ 18. The su.i filling the world. 

“ 19. A Meda— endowed by the sun with mystic power, denoted by the ap¬ 

pended plumes and rays. 

“ 20. A Wabeno. 

“ 21. The sky. 

“ 22. Death’s heads. 

u 23. Hearing ears. 

“ 24. The sea. 

“ 25. A spirit. 

“ 26. Do. 

“ 27. A Jossakeed. 

28. A sick man under the influence of necromancy. 

“ 29. A Meda. 

“ 30. An evil, or one-sided Meda. 

31. Medical skill — the human heart — symbolic. 

“ 32. An idol. 

“ 33. A seer’s image. 

“ 34. The human heart — a symbol. 

“ 35. Symbols of the heart. 

“ 36. A headless Wabeno. 

“ 37. A man loaded with presents. 

“ 38 - The society of the Wabeno — seated in a lodge. 

“ 39. Grand medicine. 

“ 40. Domestic circle. 

“ 41. A fortress — European. 


PI 53. 



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SY8SOPSI1® ' W IHBOAM HDEMffilYWKIlieS, 
















































































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


409 


Number 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

U 

66 

66 

66 

66 


66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 

66 


42. A necromantic professor filling the world with his power and skill. 

43. A symbol of power. 

44. A Gushkepitugush, or magic medicine-sack. 

45. A magic drum. 

46. The sun inclined to hear, 

47. A magic bone lifted by a meda. 

48. A magic bone flying. 

49. A wampum belt. 

50. A cormorant under magic influence. 

51. The sun — in a hearing attitude. 

52. War-clubs. 

53. The medical power of a plant filling the world, and reaching to 

the sky. 

54. A medical professor — botanic. 

55. A Wabeno — headless — standing on the world —holding human hearts 

56. Flames — symbolic. 

57. A Wabeno — having power to stand on half the world. 

58. An American — symbolic. 

59. A mosa — a species of worm, alluded to by the Wabenos. 

60. A Wabeno, sitting on the top of Ci the circle of the heavens.” 

61. A magic ring and a dart — symbolic of magic skill. 

62. A mer-man — a totem. 

63. A female prophet. 

64. A symbol of war. 

65. A symbol of peace. 

66. Goods—-a symbol. 

67. Symbol of time. 

68. The great horned serpent. 

69. A spirit of evil. 

70. Serpent. 

71. Sociality. 

72. The kingfisher — a totem. 

73. Spirit of evil, looking into heaven. 

74. The tortoise — a totem. 

75. A belt or baldric — nocturnal fraternity. 

76. A meda — with great magic power. 

77. A budding war-club. 

78. A Jossakeed, sustained by the power of birds to look into events. 

79. Fabulous serpent. 

80. Stuffed bird — a magic symbol. 

52 


410 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Number 81. 


“ 82. 
“ 88 . 
“ 84. 

“ 85. 

“ 86 . 
“ 87. 

“ 88 . 
“ 89. 

“ 90. 

« 91. 

« 92. 

“ 93. 

“ 94. 

“ 95. 

“ 96. 

“ 97. 

“ 98. 

“ 99. 

“ 100 . 
“ 101 . 
“ 102 . 

103. 
“ 104. 

“ 105.. 

“ 106. 
« 107. 
“ 108. 
« 109. 

“ 110 . 
111 . 
“ 112 . 
“ 113. 

“ 114. 

“ 115. 
“ 116. 
“ 117. 

“ 118. 
“ 119. 


A doctor, having great skill in plants. — The birds give him the power 
of ubiquity. 

A magic grasp. 

Hearing serpent. 

A symbol of the power to look into futurity. 

A man clothed in a bear’s skin. 

Symbol of power over the heart. 

Symbol of spiritual power. 

Representative figure of a female. 

The catfish — a totem. 

The eagle — a totem. 

Disabled man. 

Pipes. 

A bad spirit of the air. 

Spirit of the blue sky. 

A woodpecker, flying off in a direct line. 

A bad spirit of the sky. 

Symbol of a Wabeno standing on the globe.— Totem of his name. 

The sun. 

A spirit of prophecy of the sky. 

The serpent penetrating the earth. 

Plants — symbols of medical power. 

A beaver’s tail. 

Symbol of magical power. 

A Meda’s power, symbolized by an uplifted arm. 

Symbol of a Meda’s power, holding the clouds in his hands. 

Botanical power. 

The turtle. 

Medical power — a symbol. 

Do. do. do. 

Monster — issuing from the earth. 

Symbol of 40 heads killed in battle. 

Flag at a grave. 

A meda — with power. 

Symbol of death. 

A flag at a grave. 

War lance-club. 

Symbol of war. 

A bale of goods. 

A canoe — hunter’s. 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


411 


Number 120. 
“ 121 . 
“ 122 . 
“ 123. 

“ 124. 

• “ 125. 


A monster figure used in the game of the bowl. 

A chief, 

A bad spirit half fledged. 

Symbol of mythical power. 

A great w&r captain —with one hand he grasps the earth, with the 
other the sky. 

Symbol of a warrior bold as the sun. 


126. Reindeer’s head — a totem. 

127. A canoe filled with warriors. 

128. Instruction in magic. 

129. An encampment — symbolic. 


“ 130. A beaver under medical influence. 

“ 131. A wolf—a totem. 

“ 132. A fabulous bear — having a copper tail. 

“ 133. Symbol of speed. 

“ 134. A crane — a totem. 

“ 135. A deer — a totem. 

“ 136. A fabulous snake. 

“ 137. Satanic power — a symbol. 

“ 138. Crossed serpents — a symbol of wariness. 

“ 139. Symbol of the death of a man whose totem is the crane. 

“ 140. Symbol of death — of the bear totem. 

These signs by no means fill the entire symbolic alphabet of the Kekenowin and 
Kekewin, but will serve to denote something of their capacity of symbolizing objects 


in the various departments of nature. 


9. Universality and Antiquity of the Pictographic Method 
among the Northern Tribes. 

Geographical Area covered by the Migrations of the Algonquin Tribes; — The great fixity of 
Mental and Physical Character, caused by their Religious Beliefs ; —These Beliefs of a strongly 
marked Oriental Type ;—Their Pictography to be traced back to the North Atlantic ;—Their 
Ethnological Identity with the Ancient New England Tribes ;—Examples of Indian Petitions 
to the President of the United States. 

Pictorial inscriptions of" the character of the Muzzinabiks of the Western Indians, 
particularly of those of the Algonquin type of languages, are to be traced eastward 
from Lake Superior and the sources of the Mississippi, on the back line of their mi¬ 
gration, through Lake Huron, by its northern communications, to the shores of the 
Northern Atlantic. One of these has been previously alluded to as existing on the 
Straits of St. Mary’s, and it is believed that the art will be found to have been in use, 


412 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


and freely employed at all periods of their history, embracing the residence of their 
ancestors on the shores of the Atlantic. The ancient inscription existing at the 
mouth of the Assonet or Taunton River, between the States of Rhode Island and 
Massachusetts, is believed to be a record, essentially, of this symbolic character, in¬ 
scribed around an old Scandinavian inscription. 

It is found that very few essential changes in their forest arts or character have 
taken place among the North American tribes for several centuries. There is scarcely 
anything more worthy of remark than this general fixity of character, and indisposi¬ 
tion to change, or adopt any new traits, or abandon any old ones. The state of a 
society, simple and erratic, and moulded together on the basis of petty predatory wars 
and hunting, did not demand extraordinary efforts. The arts that sufficed one gene¬ 
ration sufficed the next. There was always a sanctity in their localities, and a strong 
appeal to prejudice in a reference to ancestral customs, and to places of actual residence 
and achievements. There was never a more powerful appeal to be made by their 
speakers than is contained in the epithets, the land of my fathers, and, the graves of 
my ancestors. The opinion that prior times had attained all that was worth attain¬ 
ment, one of the dogmas of Pontiac, has had the most paralyzing effect upon the pro¬ 
gress of the hunter tribes. Elksquatowa, the Shawnee Prophet, had a powerful effect in 
confirming them in the miraculous power of his Jeesukawins. It also had this further 
effect, that if they learnt nothing new they forgot nothing old. The old religion and 
old notions of barbarism had charms for them. How far into remote antiquity this 
remark should be carried may, perhaps, admit of question, but its truth is vindicated 
by the three centuries which have elapsed since the discovery; for, with the exception 
of mere changes of articles of dress and arms, and partial modes of subsistence, the 
wild-wood tribes of A. D. 1850 are, mentally, physically, and characteristically, iden¬ 
tical with those of A. D. 1500. 

One of the great causes of this fixity and identity — we may add, the great cause 
of both, is to be found in their system of religious belief and worship. 

The religion and the mythology of the North American Indians, are the two pro¬ 
lific sources of their opinions. Their belief on these heads may be confidently 
asserted to have been the cause of action in many of the most important events which 
mark the history of the race, ancient and modern. And the topic is one which 
demands a careful investigation in the examination of questions of this nature. The 
idea and the picture representing the idea, are too intimately connected to allow the 
one to be well understood without a knowledge of the other. Great diversity has 
prevailed, as prior data demonstrate, in the number and character of the symbols 
which have served to conduct their worship; but there are certain leading principles 
to be traced through these diversities of types and signs. Wherever examined, 
whether in the ancient seats of their power in New England, or on the plains of the 
Mississippi, or the borders of the Lakes, their religion is found to be based on the 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


413 


belief in the existence of a Great Spirit, or universal Power, who is regarded as the 
Wazhetoad, or if the object made be animate, Wazheaud, or maker. Practically, and 
as denoted by the animate roots of active verbs implying life, or being, he is recog¬ 
nized as the Original Animating Principle. As such, he is believed to be invariably 
Good, and inseparable from the Principle of Good. But, evidently to account for evil 
influences in the world, the Indian theology provides an antagonistical power which 
is represented as the impersonation of the Principle of Evil. Both these powers are 
called Monedo, and admit the prefix Great, but the latter is never denominated 
Wazheaud or Maker. This is a very ancient oriental belief, as ancient, certainly, as 
the age of Zoroaster, by whom it appears to have been originally constructed to 
account for all conflicting moral phenomena in the government of the world. Our 
tribes are certainly innocent of any refined theory or reflection of this kind; but they 
adhere, with rigid pertinacity, to the doctrine of the two antagonistical powers of 
Good and Evil. And this tells the history of their origin and descent, with more 
plainness than their mounds, their anomalous style of architecture, or their unread 
signs and hieroglyphics. These two principles are, however, found to be so atten¬ 
uated and infinitely diffused, and in this diffusion they have become so materialized 
and localized, and so prone to manifest themselves in the shape of created matter, 
animate, and inanimate, that every class of creation, and every species of every class, 
is seized upon by their forest worshippers, as an individual god. The whole earth is 
thus peopled with imaginary deities of benign or malignant power. The two classes 
are perpetually antagonistical to each other, and their votaries are thus kept in a per¬ 
petual state of fear and distrust. 

No example of the Indian picture-writing has been consulted, in which this system 
of belief is not strongly brought out. Whoever has attentively examined the 
preceding pages must have been impressed with the multiplicity of these minor 
deities, and with the complex character of the Indian polytheism. Upon a system of 
spirit-worship thus diffuse, is engrafted the idea of medical magic, called Meda, and 
the oriental notion of Oracles, or Prophets, called Jossakeeds. These constitute the 
elements in their belief. The preceding details demonstrate that there is no depart¬ 
ment of Indian life which they do not invade with an absorbing interest. They are 
the leading influences in war and hunting. They have converted the medical art, in a 
great degree, into necromantic rites. They furnish objects of remembrance upon 
graves, they animate the arcana of the mystical societies, and they constitute no 
small part of the pictorial matter recorded on trees, on rolls of bark and skins, and 
even on the hard surface of rocks. Whenever a sheet of Indian figures, or a piece of 
their symbolic writings, is presented for examination, it is important to decide, as a 
primary point, upon its theological or mythological characteristics; for these are 
generally the key to its interpretation. It affords another coincidence to that above 
named, between the religious belief of the early nations of the eastern and the 


414 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


western hemisphere, that the Creator, the Great Spirit, and the Wazheaud, was 
symbolized under the figure of the sun. Life, and the power of Evil, are personified, 
generally, under the form of a serpent; and this accounts, not only for the great 
respect and reverence they have for serpents, but for the pervading influence the 
symbol has in their meda ceremonies, and in their traditions. 

It is historically known that these religious institutions existed among the tribes 
who formerly occupied New England, the same in principle as they are now found at 
the West. The powwow, and the sagamore of the waters of Long Island, Narragansett, 
and Massachusetts, exercised the same office, and were governed by the same princi¬ 
ples, as the meda and the wabeno of the Illinois and the Mississippi, and the jossakeed 
and juggler of the banks of the Huron and the Lake of the Woods. This was in the 
general direction that the migration of the race from the North Atlantic ran, and there 
was and still exists a more intimate affiliation in rites and customs, as well as in lan¬ 
guage, between these extremes, than between them and the trans-Mississippian tribes. 

It has been shown that the office of a meda, or a prophet, is not only sometimes 
united in that of a war-chief, or captain, but it is often the best and surest avenue to 
popularity. When success had crowned the efforts of the Chippewa chief Myeengun, 
he inscribed its results by figurative signs on the faces of two separate and distinct 
rocks. The Delaware war-chief, Wingenund, described the part he bore in the great 
Indian partisan war of the West, in 1762, by symbolic figures on the banks of the 
Muskingum. The Algonquin tribes who joined the French in the expulsion of the 
Sacs and Foxes from the eastern part of Winconsin, in 1754, made a similar record 
of their success on the cliffs of Green Bay. There are still existing symbolical 
figures, preserved by the exuded gum on the sides of trees of the species pinus resinosa , 
on the portage west from Leech Lake to the shores of Pike’s Bay on Cass Lake, which 
were made, the chiefs informed me, by the Indians who inhabited the country at the 
head of the Mississippi, before its conquest by the Pillagers. And if so, they are 
equally remarkable for the duration of their drawings with those of the pines, men¬ 
tioned by La Croix, as existing on the banks of the River Irtish, in Tartary. 1 The 
art of inscription by pictures, and the disposition to employ it, existed early and 
generally among all our principal tribes; but they contented themselves, in ordinary 
cases, by committing their records to sheets of bark, painted skins, tabular sticks of 
wood, or the decorticated sides of trees, where they were read by one or two genera¬ 
tions, and then perished. 

As a suitable conclusion to this chapter, an example of a pictographic petition to 
the President of the United States, will be given. In the month of January 1849 a 
delegation of eleven Chippewas, from Lake Superior, presented themselves at Wash¬ 
ington, who, amid other matters not well digested in their minds, asked the govern- 


’ Vide Strahlenberg, seq. 






CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


415 


ment for a retrocession of some portion of the lands which the nation had formerly 
ceded to the United States, at a treaty concluded at Lapointe, in Lake Superior, in 
1842. They were headed by Oshcabawiss, a chief from a part of the forest-country, 
called by them Monomonecau, on the head- waters of the River Wisconsin. Some 
minor chiefs accompanied them, together with a Sioux and two boisbrules, or half- 
breeds, from the Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. The principal of the latter was a person 
called Martell, who appeared to be the master-spirit and prime mover of the visit, and 
of the motions of the entire party. His motives in originating and conducting the 
party, were questioned in letters and verbal representations from persons on the 
frontiers. He was freely pronounced an adventurer, and a person who had other 
objects to fulfil, of higher interest to himself than the advancement of the civilization 
and industry of the Indians. Yet these were the ostensible objects put forward, 
though it was known that he had exhibited the Indians in various parts of the Union 
for gain, and had set out with the purpose of carrying them, for the same object, to 
England. However this may be, much interest in, and sympathy for them, was 
excited. Officially, indeed, their object was blocked up. The party were not 
accredited by their local agent. They brought no letter from the acting Superintend¬ 
ent of Indian Affairs on that frontier. The journey had not been authorized in any 
manner by the department. It was, in fine, wholly voluntary, and the expenses of it 
had been defrayed, as already indicated, chiefly from contributions made by citizens 
on the way, and from the avails of their exhibitions in the towns through which they 
passed; in which, arrayed in their national costume, they exhibited their peculiar 
dances, and native implements of war and music. What was wanting, in addition 
to these sources, had been supplied by borrowing from individuals. 

Martell, who acted as their conductor and interpreter, brought private letters from 
several persons to members of Congress and others, which procured respect. After a 
visit, protracted through seven or eight weeks, an act was passed by Congress to 
defray the expenses of the party, including the repayment of the sums borrowed of 
citizens, and sufficient to carry them back, with every requisite comfort, to their homes 
in the north-west. While in Washington, the presence of the party at private houses, 
at levees, and places of public resort, and at the halls of Congress, attracted much 
interest; and this was not a little heightened by their aptness in the native cere¬ 
monies, dancing, and their orderly conduct and easy manners, united to the attraction 
of their neat and well-preserved costume, which helped forward the object of their 
mission. 

The visit, although it has been stated, from respectable sources, to have had its 
origin wholly in private motives, in the carrying out of which the natives were 
made to play the part of mere subordinates, was concluded in a manner which reflects 
the highest credit on the liberal feelings and sentiments of Congress. The plan of a 
retrocession of territory, on which some of the natives expressed a wish to settle and 


416 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


adopt the modes of civilized life, appeared to want the sanction of the several states in 
which the lands asked for lie. No action upon it could therefore be well had, until 
the legislatures of these states could be consulted. 

But if there were doubts as to the authority or approval of the visit on the part 
of either the Chippewas or frontier officers of the government, these very doubts led 
the party, under the promptings of their leader, to resort to the native pictorial art, 
which furnishes the subject of this notice. Picture-writing, in some of its shades, has 
long been noticed as existing among the western Indians. By it not only exploits in 
war and hunting are known to be recorded, but such devices are not unfrequently 
seen drawn on the smooth and often inaccessible faces of rocks, on which they are 
frequently observed to be painted, and sometimes fretted in. A still more common 
exhibition of the mode is observed in the Indian adjedatig, or grave-post; and it 
constitutes a species of notation for their meda and hunting songs. 

In the instance now before us, it is resorted to, to give authority to delegates visiting 
the seat of government. These primitive letters of credence were designed to supply 
an obvious want on the presentation of the delegation at Washington. Their leader 
was too shrewd not to know that letters of this kind would be required in order to 
enable him to stand, with authority, before the chief of the Indian Bureau, the 
Secretary of War, and the President. 

The following are exact transcripts of the rolls on a reduced scale. There are five 
separate sheets, four of which are illustrative of the principal one, which expresses in 
symbols the object of the memorial. The material is the smooth inner coats of the 
bark of the betula papyracea, or white birch of northern latitudes. To facilitate 
description, each of the pictographs, or traoed-sheets, and each of the figures of the 
several inscriptions, has been numbered. The names of the persons whose totemic 
bearings are alone introduced into these transcripts, have been written down from the 
lips of the interpreter. In this way, and from a comparison of the scrolls with other 
data possessed on the same branch, the whole story has been secured. The chiefs and 
warriors of the five several villages who united in the objects of the visit — for there 
were some temporary and other objects, besides the one above named, which are not 
necessary to be mentioned, were represented alone by the symbols, or figures of 
animals which typify their clans, or totems. Their names were written down from 
the lips of their interpreter. 

It will be seen, that by far the greatest number of the totems or clans here named, 
are represented by well-known species of quadrupeds, birds, or fishes, of the latitudes 
m which the Chippewas now live. The totemic devices would, therefore, appear 
to be indigenous and local, and to have little claim to antiquity. A few of them are 
mythological, which will be pointed out as we proceed. 

The description of Pictograph A, Plate 60, is as follows 

This is the leading inscription, and symbolizes the petition to the President. No. 1. 



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41T 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

It commences with the totem of the chief, called Oshcabawis, who headed the party, 
who is seen to be of the A<Pjirjauh, or Crane clan. To the eye of the bird standing 
for this chief, the eyes of each of the other totemic animals are directed as denoted by 
lines, to symbolize union of views . The heart of each animal is also connected by 
lines with the heart of the Crane chief, to denote unity of feeling and purpose. If these 
symbols are successful, they denote that the whole forty-four persons both see and feel 
alike — that they are one. 

No. 2, is a warrior, called Wai-mit-tig-oazh, of the totem of the Marten. The 
name signifies literally, He of the Wooden Vessel, which is the common designation 
of a Frenchman, and is supposed to have reference to the first appearance of a ship in 
the waters of the St. Lawrence. 

No. 3. O-ge-ma-gee-zhig, is also a warrior of the Marten clan. The name means 
literally, Sky-Chief. 

No. 4, represents a third warrior of the Marten clan. The name of Muk-o-mis-ud- 
ains, is a species of small land tortoise. 

No. 5. O-mush-kose, or the Little Elk, of the Bear totem. 

No. 6. Penai-see, or the Little Bird of the totem of the Ne-ban-a-baig , or Man- 
fish. This clan represents a myth of the Chippewas, who believe in the existence of 
a class of animals in the Upper Lakes, called Ne-ban-arbaig, partaking of the 
double natures of a man and a fish—a notion which, except as to the sex, has its 
analogies in the superstitions of the nations of western Europe, respecting a mer¬ 
maid. 

No. 7. Na-wa-je-wun, or the Strong Stream, is a warrior of the O-was-se-wug. or 
Catfish totem. 

Beside the union of eye to eye, and heart to heart, above depicted, Osh-ca-ba-wis, as 
represented by his totem of the Crane, has a line drawn from his eye forward, to denote 
the course of his journey, and another line drawn backward to the series of small rice 
lakes, No. 8, the grant of which constitutes the object of the journey. The long 
parallel lines, No. 10, represent Lake Superior, and the small parallel lines, No. 9, a 
path leading from some central point on its southern shores to the villages and interior 
lakes, No. 8, at which place the Indians propose, if this plan be sanctioned, to com¬ 
mence cultivation and the arts of civilized life. The entire object is thus symbolized 
in a manner which is very clear to the tribes, and to all who have studied the simple 
elements of this mode of.communicating ideas. 

The four accompanying pictographs are adjuncts of the principal inscription, and 
the object prayed for, and are designed to strengthen and enforce it, by displaying in 
detail the villages and persons who concur in the measure. 

Pictograph B, Plate 61, is interpreted thus: — This is a symbolic representation 
of the concurrence of certain of the Chippewas of Trout Lake, on the sources of Chip¬ 
pewa River, Wisconsin, in the object. 

53 



418 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


Number 1 represents the Chief Kenisteno, or the Cree, of the totem of the brant. 
O-tuk-um-i-pe-nai-see (Number 2) is his son. 

Pa-na-shee (Number 3) is a warrior of the totem or clan of the Long-tailed Bear. 
This is a mythological creation of the Chippewas, by whom it is believed that such an 
animal has a subterranean existence; that he is sometimes seen above ground; and 
that his tail, the peculiar feature in which he differs from the northern black bear, is 
formed of copper, or some bright metal. 

Number 4. This is a warrior of the Catfish totem, of the particular species denoted 
Ma-no-maig. The name is Wa-gi-ma-we-gwun, meaning, He of the chief-feather. 

Number 5. Ok-wa-gon, or the neck, a warrior of the Sturgeon totem. 

Number 6. O-je-tshaug, a warrior of the totem of the species of spring duck called 
Ah-ah-wai by the natives, which is believed to be identical with the garrulous coast 
duck called Oldwives by sailors. 1 

Numbers 7, 8, 9. Warriors of the clan of the fabulous Long-tailed Bear, who are 
named, in their order, Wa-gi-ma-wash, or would-be-chief, Karbe-tau-wash, or Mover-in- 
a-circle, and Sha-tai-mo, or Pelican’s excrement. 

Number 10. Ka-we-tau-be-tung, of the totem of the Awasees, or Catfish. 

Number 11. O-ta-gau-me, or the Fox Indian, of the Bear totem; and. Ah-ah-wai, 
or the first spring duck of the Loon totem,— all warriors. 

I Pictograph C, Plate 62. By this scroll the chief Kun-de-kund of the Eagle totem 
of the river Ontonagon, of Lake Superior, and certain individuals of his band, are 
represented as uniting in the object of the visit of Oshcabawis. He is depicted by the 
figure of an eagle, Number 1. The two small lines ascending from the head of the 
bird denote authority or power generally. The human arm extended from the breast 
of the bird, with the open hand, are symbolic of friendship. By the light lines con¬ 
necting the eye of each person with the chief, and that of the chief with the President, 
(Number 8,) unity of views or purpose, the same as in pictograph Number 1, is 
symbolized. 

Numbers 2, 3, 4, and 5, are warriors of his own totem and kindred. Their names, 
in their order, are On-gwai-sug, Was-sa-ge-zhig, or The Sky that lightens, Kwe-we- 
ziash-ish, or the Bad-boy, and Gitch-ee-ma-tau-gum-ee, or the great sounding water. 

Number 6. Na-boab-ains, or Little Soup, is a warrior of his band of the Catfish totem. 

Figure Number 7, repeated, represents dwelling-houses, and this device is employed 
to denote that the persons, beneath whose symbolic totem it is respectively drawn, are 
inclined to live in houses and become civilized, in other words, to abandon the chase. 

Number 8 depicts the President of the United States standing in his official residence 
at Washington. The open hand extended is employed as a symbol of friendship, cor¬ 
responding exactly, in this respect, with the same feature in Number 1. 


It is believed to be doubtful whether the Ah-ah-wai should not be classified with the totem of the Loon. 



























































































/ 











































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


419 


The chief whose name is withheld at the left hand of the inferior figures of the 
scroll, is represented, by the rays on his head, (Figure 9,) as, apparently, possessing a 
higher power than Number 1, but is still concurring, by the eye-line, with Kundekund 
in the purport of pictograph Number 1. 

Pictograph D, Plate 62. In this scroll figure Number 1 represents the chief Ka- 
kaik-o-gwun-na-osh, or a pigeon-haw-in-flight, of the river Wisconsin, of the totem of 
the Long-tailed Bear. The other figures of the scroll stand for nine of his followers, 
who are each represented by his appropriate totem. Number 2 is the symbol of Na- 
wa-kum-ig, or He-that-can-mystically-pass-down-in-the-earth. Number 6, Men-on-ik- 
wud-oans, Number 7, Sha-won-e-pe-nai-see, the southern bird, and Number 8, Mich-e- 
mok-in-ug-o, Going tortoise, are all warriors of the totem of the mystical Long-tailed 
Bear. Number 3 and 9 denote Chi-a-ge-bo and Ka-gd-ge-sheeb, a cormorant, two 
warriors of the bear totem. 

No. 4, Muk-kud-dai-o-kun-zhe, or black hoof, is a warrior of the brant clan. 

No. 5, Mikinok, a turtle, and No. 10, Na-tou-we-ge-zhig, the Ear of Day, are war¬ 
riors of the marten clan. 

Pictograph E, Plate 63. By this scroll, nine persons of the village of Lac Yieu 
Desert, at the source of the River Wisconsin, including its chief, are represented as 
concurring in the petition, as depicted in scroll A. 

No. 1 is the device of the chief Kai-zhe-osh, of the eagle totem. 

No. 2, Ush-kwai-gon, instrument or drawer of blood, and No. 3, Mush-koas-o-no, 
Elk’s tail, are represented as belonging to the same totem with himself. No. 4, 
Pe-kin-a-ga, the winner, is of the ah-ah-wa totem. Of the other persons of this 
village, who have yielded their assent, No. 5, Ka-ga-no-garda, No. 8, Wa-gi-win-a, and 
No. 9, Pe-midj-wargau-kwut, the hoe, (literally, cross-axe,) are of the bear totem. 
No. 6, Narbun-e-gee-zhig, bright sky, is of the awassees or fish totem. No. 7, O-zhin- 
in-nie, the well-made man, is of the elk totem —a much-respected totem in that 
section of country. It is drawn with high horns, and a tuft from the breast, two very 
characteristic features of this animal, but, as is usual in the native devices, very much 
out of drawing. It has an eye-line, thrown widely forward, to denote its fixity on the 
seat of central power at Washington. 

It will be perceived that the several members of the eagle totem, 1, 2, 3, and also 
the duck totem, No. 4, are denoted by the eye-lines as hailing from, or having their 
residences at, Lac Vieu Desert, No. 10, while the persons of the bear, elk, and cat-fish 
totems respectively have no such local sign. It is to be inferred, therefore, that these 
individuals live at other and distinct points, in that part of the country, but are not 
of the Lake of Yieu Desert. 

The whole number of totems in the Chippewa nation is undetermined. Twelve 
are indicated in these devices. Of the forty-four persons who are represented, one is 
of the crane, four of the marten, seven of the black bear, one of the nebanabe, or man- 


420 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


fish, six of the cat-fish, three of the brant, eight of the long-tailed subterranean bear, 
one of the sturgeon, two of the ahahwaj, or spring duck, eight of the eagle, two of the 
loon, and one of the elk totem. 

It will be seen, in a view of the several devices, that the greatest stress appears to 
be laid throughout upon the totem of the individuals, while there is no device or sign 
to denote their personal names. The totem is employed as the evidence of the identity 
of the family and of the clan. This disclosure is in accordance with all that has been 
observed of the history, organization, and polity of the Chippewa, and of the Algonquin 
tribes generally. The totem is in fact a device, corresponding to the heraldic bearings 
of civilized nations, which each person is authorized to bear, as the evidence of his 
family identity. The very etymology of the word, which is a derivative from Do 
daim, a town or village, or original family residence, denotes this. It is remarkable, 
also, that while the Indians of this large group of North America, withhold their true 
personal names, on inquiry, preferring to be called by various sobriquets, which are 
often the familiar lodge-terms of infancy, and never introduce them into their drawings 
and picture-writing, they are prompt to give their totems to all inquirers, and never 
seem to be at a moment’s loss in remembering them. It is equally noticeable, that 
they trace blood-kindred and consanguinities to the remotest ties; often using the 
nearer for the remoter affinities, as brother and sister for brother-in-law and sister-in- 
law, &c.; and that where there is a lapse of memory or tradition, the totem is confi¬ 
dently appealed to, as the test of blood affinity, however remote. It is a consequence 
of the importance attached to this ancient family tie, that no person is permitted to 
change or alter his totem, and that such change is absolutely unknown among them. 

These scrolls were handed in, and deposited among the statistical and historical 
archives and collections of the bureau. By closely inspecting them, they are seen to 
denote the concurrence of but thirty-three Chippewa warriors, out of the entire Chip¬ 
pewa nation, besides the eleven persons present. Each family and its location, is 
accurately depicted by symbols. Unity is shown by eye-lines, and by heart-lines. 
Friendship by an open hand. Civilization by a dwelling-house. Each person bears 
his peculiar totemic mark. The devices are drawn, or cut, on the smooth inner sur¬ 
face of the sheets of bark. It will thus have been observed, that the Indian pictorial 
system is susceptible of considerable certainty of information. By a mixture of the 
pure representative and symbolical mode, these scrolls are made to denote accurately 
the number of the villages uniting in the object of Martell’s party, together with the 
number of persons of each totemic class, who gave in their assent to the plan. They 
also designate, by geographical delineations, the position of each village, and the 
general position of the country which they ask to be retroceded. It is this trait of 
the existence among the Chippewas and Algonquins generally, of a pictorial art, or 
rude method of bark, tree, or rock-writing, which commends the circumstances of the 
visit to a degree of notice beyond any that it might, perhaps, otherwise merit. It 


P0CT©©KAP>1HI o 1. PI.63. 









































PI. 70 


/ 



[m K] the first Iroquois Ruler 




























































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


421 


recalls strongly to mind the early attainments of eastern nations in a similar rude 
mode of expressing ideas by symbolic marks and symbols, prior to the remote eras of 
the introduction of the cuneiform, and long prior to the true hieroglyphic system of 
the Euphrates and the Nile. In fact, every trait of this kind may be considered as 
furnishing additional lights to aid us in considering the question of the origin, condi¬ 
tion, capacities and character ot hunter nations, of whose ancient history we are still 
quite in the dark. 

10. Comparative Views of the Pictography of Barbarous 

N ATIONS. 


Foreign Pictographic Signs; —The Chinese Characters founded on the Picture-writing Devices of 
the Samoides — Siberians — Tartars; — Inscriptions from the Banks of the Yenisei and the 
Irtish ; — Rock Inscriptions from Northern Asia; — System of the Laplanders ; — Copies of 
the Figures printed on the Drums of the Lapland Magicians, with their Interpretation ; — 
The Device on the great Drum of Torna ;—Iroquois Pictography; — Specimen from 
Oceanica. 

In comparing the system of simple pictorial notation, of which the outlines have now 
been presented, with similar efforts to record ideas in other parts of the world, there 
is, doubtless, a class of testimony referred to, from which important deductions may 
be drawn. The art, as we hinted in first sitting down to this paper, was one of the 
earliest known to mankind; and without supposing that in the progress of human 
diffusion over the globe, it was in all cases derivative, it was indubitably so in many 
instances. In others, it would have been originated or fallen into by the mere simi¬ 
larity of early circumstances and opinions, among erratic or migrating tribes. It was 
the first effort of men to transmit thought. Fear is perhaps the primary passion 
among rude nations. The Mysterious Power which governs the universe, as mani¬ 
fested in the phenomena of the heavens, has led all nations, however obscure, to adopt 
some sort of worship, and this was ever a prominent and leading motive. Whatever 
other passion or sentiment conspired to the institution of early religious rites, fear was 
most clearly the predominating cause. Wonder and superstition were at hand. The 
early history of men shows, that the first propitiatory offerings were made on this 
basis. What nations dreaded they worshipped, and the first step was to draw a 
picture of the object, or to symbolize the idea of it under the representation of some 
material form. In this manner the sun and the moon became at so early an epoch 
objects of almost universal adoration throughout the.oriental world. The honors they 
received as symbols of a Higher Principle, they did not, however, permanently retain. 
They, in their turn, were symbolized by celebrated men; and thus Persia and Egypt, 
Hindostan and China, and other quarters of the eastern hemisphere, were filled with 


422 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


their ruling deities, under the human form, and their kings and rulers traced their 
descent or relationship to these two luminaries. 

In every case these nations mistook a picture for a god. We regard this as 
the element, or unit in pictorial writing. If they feared the Power which appeared 
to govern the elements, they also feared those more prominent and gigantic forms of 
the animate creation, which filled the earth, the air, or the seas. When they cap¬ 
tured one of these prime animals, reptiles, or birds, they perpetuated the triumph by 
a figure, or picture of it. There was at once an ideographic record, but it was 
exclusively a record of substantives. Action was communicated to it by auxiliary 
figures of men and implements, trees and plains. For time, a dot would answer, and 
for arithmetic, a stroke. Such, we imagine, to have been the inception of the system. 
That it was susceptible of rapid improvement, and came to express a considerable 
sum of information, we have only to glance back at the preceding details to show. 
How soon the pictorial method ran into the true hieroglyphic, and the latter into the 
alphabetic, it would be very curious and instructive to inquire; but it is an inquiry 
which we must forego. For had we the requisite materials, it would demand all the 
space we propose to allot to the present outlines. 

By the notices taken of the Egyptian system of hieroglyphic writing, an important 
link in their notorial chain of progress is shown. The thought occurred to the 
skilful hierophant, that a picture might stand for an articulate sound of the human 
voice. And the system adopted was, that the picture of the bird, animal or other 
object, so drawn to denote a sound, should represent, exclusively, the first or initial 
letter of the name of the object depicted. The discovery of this principle was the 
great revelation of modern times in Egyptian hieroglyphics, and has opened a large 
amount of information on the later monuments. 

The Chinese system of writing is also based on, and has grown out of, the pictorial 
and the hieroglyphic. But it has assumed the most cumbrous and complex possible 
form for the communication of ideas; and one that is least favorable to the progress 
of the human mind. It constitutes the great objection to the phonetic system — that 
objection which introduces into it all its uncertainty, and continues to make it a 
subject of labor and disagreement among the learned — that there is a great multipli¬ 
city of its homophonous characters. The Chinese ran into a very unique system of 
recording thought, one which ensured great precision and certainty, but imposed on 
the learner a most extraordinary labor. It was to invent symbols for the sounds of 
whole words, terms and even phrases, instead of elementary sounds. Every noun¬ 
symbol, and every verb-symbol, and every pronoun-symbol was provided with adjunct 
characters, to denote accessary meanings, so that the Chinese alphabet is an alphabet 
of whole words, and not, as with us, and all other modern nations, an alphabet of 
elementary sounds.—Eighty thousand characters to record a language, instead of 
twenty-six. That a nation with such a system should not progress in knowledge, and 




* 






























■ 








I 












































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


423 


that the pursuit of it should be highly valued, excites no wonder. What few have 
the time or means to obtain, must always excite that kind of respect which attaches 
to achievement. 

These are the two only systems of hieroglyphics among mankind which have, 
either as hieroglyphics proper, or as altered arbitrary signs, run into, or effected the 
purpose of letters. And this result has been attained independently, and without the 
one having borrowed, or had, so far as history extends, the least probable or possible 
connection with the others. 

In directing attention to the nations of other parts of Asia, or of the globe, who 
have attracted notice for their picture-writing, the field of observation of the American 
continent itself is narrowed, it is believed, rather from the amount of materials we 
can command, or the space which travellers have devoted to it, than from the absolute 
non-existence of such materials. It was long thought that much of the writings of 
the engraved rocks of Wady Mohattah, in the group of Mount Sinai, of which speci¬ 
mens were furnished by Burckhardt and La Borde, were either picture-writing, or 
hieroglyphics, as no ancient alphabets could be found to solve them. The figures of 
camels, men, and other representative objects, were, at least, presumptive proofs of a 
mixed system. It is now announced, however, that modern research has overcome 
the obstacles to their interpretation, and that the alphabet of the larger inscriptions 
has been made out, although we have not yet, on this side of the water, been favored 
with the results. The pictorial objects still remain. The fact of the existence of 
these inscribed rocks had been known since 1722. By some the inscriptions have 
been supposed to be of the date of the 6th century, and to be the work of pilgrims 
visiting Mount Sinai; others have seen reason to assign a later date. It appears 
important to preserve a distinction between the mere pictorial and the alphabetic 
part of the various inscriptions, which are found to spread over separate faces of the 
rocks for many leagues. The former may often be regarded as illustrative of the 
latter; but it is by no means certain that they are, in all cases, parts of the same 
inscription, or are even of the same age. Writers have generally regarded the pictorial 
signs as of the earliest date; and the occurrence of such inscriptions in this portion of 
Asia is in coincidence with the supposed early prevalence of the practice in that 
primitive region of the human race. If Egypt and China did not profit by the advance 
of each other, in the first culmination of the pictorial in their respective systems of hie- 
roglyhic signs, they may, reasonably enough, be thought to have derived their earlier 
ideas of it from that central quarter. 

The ancient cuneiform or arrow-headed character of Persia has been long regarded 
as among the hieroglyphic enigmas of this part of the eastern hemisphere; but this 
has also yielded to modern research, and been found to reveal the true elements of a 
written character. It is among the tribes of the vast area which was covered by the 


424 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 

Mongol, Tartar race, and by the Samoides of northern Asia, that we find the strongest 
remains of picture-writing. 

The following transcripts are copied from the pages of the Swedish traveller, 
Strahlenberg, who first visited those countries about 1709, and published an account 
of his observations in the Low Countries, in 1722. 1 The first drawing is from the 
banks of the river Yenisei. Vide Figure C, Plate 64. 

No explanation of it is attempted. The mere inspection of it denotes it to be one 
of those records of success in the chase, the communication of which, by pictures, is a 
common trait of roving and hunting bands. It takes its characteristic features from 
the natural history of the region; and we may suppose it to embrace rude representa¬ 
tions of the Siberian hare, the cabarda or musk deer, and other known quadrupeds. 
Some of the under figures are manifestly symbolic, and five of them, inscribed above 
the figure of a heart, and bales of goods or baggage, are probably alphabetic. 

The next specimen is from a precipitous rock on the river Irtish, a branch of the 
Nytza, Tartary. This rock, which is 36 feet high, has an isolated position. It has 
four sides, one of which faces the water, and has a number of tombs or sepulchral 
caves beneath. The figures which are here concentrated on a single folio cover, the 
four sides.' They are drawn in red colors in a durable kind of pigment, which is 
found to be almost indestructible, and is much used for rock inscriptions. (See 
Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, Plate 65.) 

In this inscription, we may suppose, there are some memorials of the persons en¬ 
tombed. They evince a curious mixture of the pictorial and hieroglyphic, and may 
at least be regarded as exhibiting the former in a state of transition. An opinion is 
expressed, which appears to be well founded, that they denote one of the earlier stages 
of the Chinese, which had been diffused into Tartary in the course of the wars and 
conquests carried on by these nations. Other specimens of such inscriptions are given 
from the vicinity of Tobolsk, which exhibit still more unequivocal proofs of the trans¬ 
mutation of the character, and, indeed, leave but little trace of its origin in the 
pictorial method. 

In the annexed rock inscriptions, Figure 4, Plate 66, which complete my quotations 
from this work, there are two striking coincidences with the North American pictures, 
in the style of drawing, and the symbolic combinations of thought. The first is the 
human figure. In this example we behold that combination of a bird and a man which, 
in so many of the preceding mnemonic figures of war and hunting, are designed to 
represent speed, and the power of superior knowledge by exaltation to the regions of 
the air. 

In the line of fourteen crosses we recognise the North American symbol for men. 

1 An Historico-Geographieal Description of the North and Eastern parts of Europe and Asia, hut more 
particularly of Russia, Siberia, and Great Tartary, &c. By Philip John von Strahlenberg. London Ed. 
A.D. 1738. 






. 












SIBERIA! INSCRIPTIONS RELATING TO THE CHASE. 























































Plate 65 



TRANSCRIPT TROM THE RIVER IRTISH TARTARY. 







































425 


CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 

The figure beneath them, on the right, is a warrior on horseback, armed with a bow 
and arrow. On the left of this device, the two trees are evidently designed to sym¬ 
bolize medicinal plants. 1 

In the drawings A and B, Plate 64, there is a strong resemblance to the free style 
of figuring, of which Mr. Catlin has furnished examples, as existing on buffalo-robes, 
among the tribes who possess horses, and hunt on horseback on the Missouri plains. 
In these Siberian sketches the hand of a higher grade of art is, however, manifest. 

That the simple style of rock inscription, among the Mongolian and Tartar races 
of the eastern hemisphere, bears a marked resemblance to that of the red race of the 
western, is denoted in the following examples. (See figure 6, Plate 66, and figures 1, 
2, 3, 4, Plate 67.) In figure 6, Plate 66, the drawing of a frocked man, with a heart 
lying at his feet, is suggestive of the office of a priesthood, among a barbarous people. 
The stems of shrubs, sprouting from one lobe of the heart, may symbolize a fragrant 
memory. The figures of high crosses raised upon a sort of rampart, appear to indicate 
towns, forts, or localities. The circle divided into eight parts, appears to be horologic. 
In figure 1, Plate 67, the deer stands as a simple symbol; in figure 2, of the same 
plate, the dart has the same value. In figure 3 of this plate, the reader is strongly 
reminded of a curious stone map, found on the sources of the Susquehanna, of which 
a transcript was published by the Historical Committee of the Pennsylvania Philoso¬ 
phical Society. In figure 4, as in some characters in figure 2, there is a strong ten¬ 
dency to the ancient rock-alphabet. 

In the latter part of the 17th century, the government of Sweden employed a Mr. 
Scheffer, a professor of the University of Upsal, to travel into Lapland, to give a 
particular account of that but imperfectly-known part of the Swedish dominions. 
Amongst other subjects which he describes in his work, giving the results of this 
journey, he furnishes the following examples of their picture-writing, as illustrations 
of the ancient magical arts of the people, prior to the introduction of Christianity into 
Lapland. 2 The account which he gives of the “ magical ceremonies and arts of the 
Laplanders,” is a very curious chapter in the history of human superstitions; and 
exhibits, as a whole, a remarkable coincidence with the system of demonology existing 
under the name of medas, jossakeeds, wabenos, and professors of soothsaying and 
medical magic, in the western hemisphere. 

Scheffer’s figures are copied from the heads of the drums employed by the Lapland 
sorcerers and magicians. These drums are one-headed, consisting of a skin drawn 

1 In Figures 1 and 2, Plate 66, are given representations of two pieces of sculpture, which do not surpass the 
art that has been found to be displayed by numerous representations of birds and quadrupeds, covered upon the 
antique pipes of the Mississippi Valley. 

* The History of Lapland, containing a Geographical Description and a Natural History of that Country, with 
an Account of its Inhabitants, their Original Religion, Customs, Habits, Marriages, Conjurations, Employments, 
&c. Written by John Scheffer, Professor, &c. London Ed. 1704, 

54 




426 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


tightly over a wooden hoop, and fastened with pegs. They are generally ovate, and 
differ much in size. They seldom exceed eighteen inches in diameter, and are often 
less. The figures are drawn on, or rather stained into the skin, by a red liquid or 
pigment, prepared from the bark of the alder. They are struck with a drum-stick, or 
instrument resembling a ring. The music is accompanied with songs and incantations. 
In these songs their gods, spirits, or demons are addressed. The operators profess 
both to foresee and to produce events. They profess to furnish or allay winds on the 
sea; to cure or cause diseases; to perform magical journeys in the air, or under the 
earth; to influence the courses and ranges of wild or tame animals; and to exercise, 
without limitation, those powers which appertain to the ideas of witchcraft, sorcery, 
and magic. 

Their principal deities are Thor and Storjunkare. The sun generally occupies the 
centre of the drum, surrounded by the moon, stars, birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, and 
various terrestrial or fabulous objects. The following transcripts, marked A and B, 
in the original work of Mr. Scheffer, exhibit two of the ordinary drums. Figure a 
represents Thor; b, his attendants; c, Storjunkare, and d, his attendants; e, birds; 
f, stars; g, Christ; h, his apostles; i, a bear; k, a wolf; 1, a reindeer; m, an ox; n, 
the sun; o, a lake; p, a fox; q, a squirrel; v, a serpent. Here is, it will be observed, 
but little admixture of Christianity; it is merely taking into the number of things 
worshipped or relied on, or otherwise made the objects of occult energy, the name of 
Christ, showing the historical fact of the introduction of Christianity into the country 
at this period. 

In the drawing B,a,denotes the Supreme Being; b, the Saviour; c, the Holy Spirit; 
d, St. John; e, death; f, a goat; g, a squirrel; h, heaven; i, the sun; 1, a wolf; m, 
a fish called scik; n, an owhr cock, or wild cock; o, friendship with the wild reindeer; 
p, Annundus Erici, the owner of the drum, being in the act of killing a wolf; q, gifts; 
r, an otter; f, a symbol of friendship with other Laplanders; t, a swan; v, a sign to 
try the disposition of others, and whether a distemper be curable; x, a bear; y, a hog; 
B, a fish; Y, one carrying a soul to hell. What associations ! 

Each operator appears to be at liberty to introduce such figures as suit his fancy, 
belief, or superstitions. Geographical or astronomical visions are generally drawn on 
the painted skins, by which there is supposed to be an association of objects deemed 
to be congruous. 

A few general facts in the principles of pictorial notation of the Laplanders, may, 
however, be noticed. The sun bears its usual figure of a man’s head, rayed. The 
same figure is used on a basis, representing a body, for the two gods Thor (who repre¬ 
sent the great power of Good,) and Storjunckare, (the antagonistic power of evil,) and, 
also, on a cross, the same symbol stands for the servants of each god. Stars are re¬ 
presented by two parallel lines, crossed at an acute angle by two similar lines, describ¬ 
ing a rhomb in the centre. Birds are denoted by a simple skeleton of a body, and 









Drawn Capt. S. Eastman, U S.A Xrth Printed '& Col d by J.T.Ea\ven,j?lul. 


LAPLAND IS H DRUM HEAD. 


























































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


427 


wings, making a cross. Death, by a monument crowned with a wreath. Various 
animals and reptiles by appropriate figures, as a reindeer, a squirrel, a serpent, a 
vulture. But these animals are generally mystified in their forms, and denoted by 
symbols which can only be interpreted by the sorcerer. Other symbols are wholly 
arbitrary, as a circle crossed, to denote gifts, waved lines to denote a lake, an ellipsis 
for friendship, &c. Much of each inscription would be wholly unintelligible without 
verbal explanation from an initiate in these mysteries. In Plate E, the figure of a 
closed cross, which is used on some of the North American inscriptions to denote 
death, occurs five times; but we have no interpretation of this. On Plate F there 
are no less than two-and-twenty figures, which may be supposed to have an alphabeti¬ 
cal power. Both these inscriptions express, by division lines, the relative position of 
Sweden, Norway, and Lapland. They are, likewise, replete with figures of a frocked 
priesthood, clearly denoting the Christian church of the period. 

If, as has been remarked above, these examples denote a variety and want of 
uniformity in the symbols, or a great many homophonous characters, this fact is still 
further apparent in the subjoined transcript, Plate 68, which was copied in 1673 from 
one of the largest of the Lapland drums, then in the possession of Lawrence Althmack, 
a citizen of Stockholm. Fortunately, also, for the study of this subject, we have a 
full explanation of the characters and figures, by a Laplander, a native of Torna. 
Not less than one hundred and fifty characters are inscribed on this drum. They 
relate to necromancy, geography, natural history, law, medicine, astrology, demonology 
of the grossest type, and, in truth, every possible subject which could occur between 
the operator, or incantator, and the object of his incantations. 

Figure number 1, is a symbol of Paul of Torna ; 2, is the river of Torna, and 3, a 
tributary of it; 4, a weathercock, pointing to the north ; 5, a symbol denoting God; 
6, the sun; 7, the moon; 8, thunder; 9, a divine angel; 10, the angel Gabriel; 11, 
St. John; 12, St. Peter; 13, St. Matthew; 14, St. Martin; 15, St. Luke; 16, God’s 
sergeant; 17, rain; 18, the light of the sun; 19, the wind; 20, good fortune; 21, bad 
fortune; 22, the earth; 23, water; 24, fire ; 25, dedicated to sacrifices; 26, another 
form of the same altar; 27, the mountain Stateberg, a place of sacrifice; 28, the 
mountain Titro, also a place of sacrifice; 29, Sweden; 30, Prussia; 31, Holland; 
32, England; 33, Spain; 34, France; 35, Cologne; 36, Turkey; 37, Lapland; 38, 
Finland; 39, the cities of Finland; 40, the cities of Sweden; 41, the cities of Ger¬ 
many; 42, the village of the laborers; 43, war; 44, peace; 45, some persons going to 
church; 46, a great ship; 47, a shallop; 48, a Lapland idol; 49, the devil’s boat; 
50, the holy tree of the Laplanders; 51, a citizen; 52, his wife; 53, a countryman; 
54, his wife; 55, a Laplander, or his wife; 56, the governor of Lapland; 57, the 
governor’s gentleman; 58, a bailiff; 59, a Lapland church; 60, the church of the city 
of Torna; 61, the country church of the Lapmark of Torna; 62, the holy stone of the 
Laplander; 63, the trunk of the holy tree of the Laplanders; 64, a bear; 65, a cow; 


428 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY AND 


66, an ox; 67, a wolf; 68, a reindeer; 69, a sheep; 70, a hog; 71, a horse with a long 

tail; 72,-; 73, a swan; 74,-; 75, a great wild cock; 76, a Laplander tra r 

veiling in his sledge; 77, the mountain of Lapland dedicated to sacrifices; 78, a 
Lapland hut; 79, the most dangerous and malicious sorcerers; 80, a priest; 81, a 
man; 82, a squirrel; 83, a fir tree; 84, a pine tree; 85, a hare; 86, a fox; 87, the 

young of a reindeer; 88, a birch tree; 89, a cat; 90,-; 91, a lake or hog, with 

fishes and a boat; 92, a beaver; 93, an animal called jerf, or gouli; 94,-; 95, a 

dog; 96, an oroskre, or ornokre, signifying the cast-off skin of a serpent; 97, a serpent; 
98, a frog; 99, the god Nao; 100, the devil’s ditch; 101, the genius of the mountains; 
102, the hill of hell; 103, death; 104, an otter; 105, Lucifer; 106, Asmodeus; 107, 
a tyre, that is, a magical ball; 108, magical arrows; 109, denotes, it has happened 
according to the devil’s will; 110, denotes the reverse, i. e. that it has happened con¬ 
trary to the devil’s intention; 111, the same devil; 112, his sergeant or officer, who 

attends constantly on his person; 113, the kettle of hell; 114, spectres; 115,-; 

116,- of hell; 117, the first president of the assembly of magicians; 118, the 

second president of the same assembly; 119, the third president of the same assembly; 
120, the fourth president of the same; 121, the sorcerers going to their place of meeting 
with those children whom they instruct in magic; 122, the place where the sorcerers 
assemble, with their chief masters; 123, the district of Drontheim; 124, the gallows; 
125, the prison; 126, the chief judge; 127, a symbol of the law; 128, the twelve 
judges; 129, the chamber where the judges sit; 130, the presiding judge; 131, a 
symbol denoting what is law ; 132, a symbol denoting what is not law; 133, the feast 

of the nativity of Christ; 134, Easter day; 135, Whitsuntide; 136, the feast of-; 

137, St. Mary’s, or midsummer day; 138, the day of the sun; 139, St. Eric’s day; 
140, St. John’s day; 141, St. Peter’s day; 142, St. James’ day; 143, St. Michael’s 
day; 144, to denote an acceptable sacrifice; 145, symbolic of one who speaks truth; 
146, those who are pernicious to the earth and to the waters; 147, death; 148, sick¬ 
ness; 149, a mortal wound given with a magical javelin; 150, device to denote an 
interdiction to sacrifice to any god of the mountains, to the trunk of a tree, or to a 
stone, because it will be vain and unsuccessful. 

If a Lapland drum could speak, in magic tones, on so many subjects, it would seem 
to require, in order to give force to their expression, but the words of the incantation 
of the North American chief, (Vide ante,) “ Hear my drum,” or the voice of the whole 
of these 150 diverse Lapland symbols, and images of things in heaven, earth, and 
hell, speaking at once. It has been stated that the cuneiform character has revealed 
the true elements of an alphabetical system. Some of its accompaniments were, 
however, representative or pictorial. Such is the triumphal record of the conquests 
of Darius on 'the rock of Belistun, as given by Major Rowlinson. 1 (See Plate 69.) 


1 Royal Asiatic Society. “ The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun,” &c., by Major H. C. Rowlinson, 
C. B. of the Hon. East India’s Service, &c., London, 1846. 





* & 


PL. 71 
















































CHARACTER OF THE INDIAN RACE. 


429 


In this pictorial group the monarch is represented as the military conqueror of ten 
kings, nine of whom are chained together by the neck, and the tenth drawn prostrate, 
with the king’s foot on his breast. Behind him stand his principal war-captains, 
drawn very much in the manner of the Mohawk chiefs who, in the Iroquois picto¬ 
graphy, offer the chief-rulership to Atotarho. Above the group is represented the 
Persian god, Ormusd, who, by the ring about his body, and also by the circle in his 
hand, carries the symbol of eternity. 

In the specimens of Iroquois pictography, which are now introduced, a style of 
drawing is observed which gives more muscular development to the human figure than 
is common with the remote forest tribes. In Plate 70, the first ruler of the tribes, 
under the confederacy, is depicted. Besides great military prowess, tradition gives him 
the reputation of a sorcerer or necromancer. The most noxious animals were harmless 
to him under the power of his charms; he is therefore drawn surrounded with rattle¬ 
snakes, who defend him on all sides. His perfect composure is shown by the calmness 
with which he indulges the pipe — thus offering a species of frankincense to the spirit 
who sustained him. Before him stand two Mohawk war-chiefs, who offer him the 
simple staff of Iroquois sovereignty. 

Plate 71. In this group we are presented with an Iroquois dancing party. The 
singer and drummer sits upon a stool. The dancers wield their clubs, and put them¬ 
selves in the most contorted positions. It is a war-group. Wreaths depend from their 
elbows. Feathers decorate their heads. Their moccasins are cut like a ducal crown 
reversed. 

Plate 72. National tradition, in this group, perpetuates one of its principal super¬ 
stitions. It is that of the fairy flying heads — an evident allusion to meteoric displays. 
Figure 4 embodies the main idea. Rays or flashes of fire are symbolized with a face 
and claws. A woman sitting and roasting chestnuts before the fire, with her dog, is 
mistaken, by this mysterious visitor, for a fire-eater. The act is considered paramount 
to his own. 

Plate 73. This plate represents the Stonish Giants — a prime recital in Iroquois 
history. Who the giants are designed to symbolize is uncertain. They are repre¬ 
sented as impenetrable by darts. Did ever an enemy, clothed in armor, visit this 
nation ? Or, do the Stonish Giants symbolize the first enemy they met with fire¬ 
arms ? The retreating warriors and the inefficacy of their darts are shown, as if they 
fled from mailed warriors. 

We subjoin a specimen of the pictographic art for the tribes of Oceanica. 

In Freycinet and Arago’s voyage to the Eastern Ocean, they obtained and published 
a specimen of the mode in which rude nations express their wishes pietorially, which 
may serve as an introduction to the less elementary method of the North American 
tribes. See C, Plate 47. The author of this symbolical letter was a native of the 


480 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY, ETC. 


Caroline Islands, a Tamor of Sathoual, who wished to avail himself of the presence 
of a ship to send to a trader at Rotta, M. Martinez, some shells which he had 
promised to collect in exchange for a few axes and some other articles. This he 
expressed to the captain, who gave him a piece of paper to make the drawing, and 
satisfactorily executed the commission. The figure of a man at the top denotes the 
ship’s captain, who, by his outstretched arms, represents his office of a messenger 
between the parties. The rays, or ornaments on his head, denote rank or authority. 
The vine beneath him is a type of friendship. In the left column are depicted the 
number and kind of shells sent; in the right column the things he wished in exchange, 
namely, seven fish-hooks, three large and four small — two axes and two pieces of 
iron. This request, the journalists state, was accurately fulfilled, and the exchange 
adjusted to the full satisfaction of the Tamor. 


ZL y 





































































































































































































VII. POPULATION AND STATISTICS. 


( 431 ) 



VII. POPULATION AND STATISTICS. 


The aboriginal population of America was over-rated from the beginning; and the 
same spirit of exaggeration which actuated the early discoverers, has continued to 
throw its influence over every period of our history. It is not probable that, at the 
opening of the sixteenth century, or any other period which may be selected, the 
number of souls upon the Indian territory, bore any very considerable ratio to the 
number of square miles of country which they occupied in the shape of villages, or 
hunting grounds. The hunter state requires, indeed, that immense districts of forest 
should be left in the wilderness condition, that its objects may be properly accom¬ 
plished. From some data that have been employed, it is doubtful whether an area of 
less than fifty thousand acres, left in the forest state, is more than sufficient to sustain 
by the chase a single hunter. 

Most of the tribes living in districts where game abounded, relied almost exclusively 
upon that resource for a subsistence. The zea maize was cultivated in all the south¬ 
ern and middle latitudes of the territory of the United States, not as furnishing the 
staple of life, but as a mere subsidiary means of subsistence. This can be said of the 
ancient Floridians, amongst whom De Soto marched, and will hold good, if the remark 
be applied to the Muskogees, the Choctaws and Chickasaws, and the Cherokees, of the 
earlier periods of our history. 

The common deer was found to inhabit all the latitudes from the Gulf of Mexico to 
the shores of the Great Lakes. The black bear extended its ranges to an equal 
extent. The elk ( C ’. Canadensis ) was an inhabitant of the North Atlantic forests, and 
was found by the hunter west of the Alleghanies, and as far south as the forests of 
Louisiana and the prairies of Texas. 

The moose {C. Alces) was killed in Pennsylvania, and characterized the forests of 
New England and the entire range of the Lake States. To these animals, which fur¬ 
nished the common viands of an Indian’s lodge, were added, for all the region west 
55 ( 433 1 


434 


POPULATION AND STATISTICS. 


of the Alleghanies, the bison of the west, (Bos Americanus ,) the prominent object and 
glory of the chase for the tribes of these latitudes. For these prime objects of prey, 
the Indian disputed with the wolf, the northern cougar, or panther, and the northern 
hyena. 

If, with the ample means and sparse population of the continent, the Indian had 
devoted himself to the arts of peace, the aboriginal population would undoubtedly 
have far transcended any modern estimates that have been submitted. But the 
reverse was singularly true; and, while he maintained an active war on the native 
quadrupeds, this struggle was but secondary compared to his incessant, blood-thirsty, 
and perfidious war against his own species. Every element of tribal discord was there 
in active operation, long before the continent was discovered; and it is inferable that 
the population barely sustained itself, but did not advance, for centuries. 

The Iroquois, who appear to have perceived this cause of depopulation, and adopted 
the principles of a confederacy, reaped the highest advantages from it, and, in a com¬ 
paratively few years, extended the terror of their name from New York and New 
England, throughout all New France, quite to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. 

The discovery of America, and the planting of the colonies, put a new phasis on all 
this. By the introduction of fire-arms, and by creating a market for furs, the real 
objects of the chase were entirely changed. Hunting was altered from a manly 
pastime to a money-making pursuit. The beaver, otter, mink, musk-rat, and other 
small animals, which had before-time been sufficient for their food and clothing, 
acquired a sudden value, and the Indian’s appetites were stimulated by every possible 
inducement of foreign production, to exert all his powers in the chase. The conse¬ 
quence was, that large tracts of land were soon exhausted, and remote forests invaded. 
The countries in which game failed became of little use to them, and were easily 
parted with for the means of gratifying their newly-awakened passions, and they 
retired farther into the wilderness. The Anglo-Saxon trod closely on their heels, 
following with the plough the circle before gleaned with the rifle, the gun, and 
the trap. 

Amongst the inducements furnished the Indian, to urge him on in the chase of 
the furred animals, nothing has been so deleterious as the introduction of distilled 
spirits. A taste for this was soon created, and it has spread far and wide. Years 
have only confirmed the general habit. It has paralyzed his powers as a hunter, and 
done more than all other causes put together, to produce depopulation. 

Another cause, which has but recently been demonstrated, though long suspected, 
is the payment of cash annuities to tribes per capita, or otherwise. The necessary 
result of the sale of their lands, of which the quantity held becomes excessive in their 
hands, by the failure of the chase upon them, is the accumulation of large sums, which 
it is customary, in general, to pay in the form of annuities. This custom is universal, 
it is believed, in our intercourse with the non-industrial or hunter tribes. 


POPULATION AND STATISTICS. 


435 


Reference to the following tables of statistics denotes that the hunter tribes, who 
rely, largely, on these cash annuities, become careless in their ordinary pursuit of the 
chase. The temptation to idleness is too strong for resistance in the Indian mind. 
While the use of the trap is neglected, debt is incurred for the means of clothing and 
subsistence. It is not to be expected that the ordinary principles of commerce will be 
intermitted in the intercourse of our frontier citizens with those moneyed tribes. Credit 
will follow, as in ordinary cases, the known means and disposition of payment. 

The Indian is a man who, whatever may be his idiosyncracies, is prompt to acknow¬ 
ledge his obligations to discharge his debts, tribal and personal, and who is ever ready, 
when his means will permit it, to cancel them : this is characteristic of the moral sense 
of the tribes. No man, who has had opportunities of frequent observation of their 
character and customs, will, it is apprehended, deny this noble trait of tribal honesty 
and fair dealing. The history of our Indian treaties is a standing commentary upon 
its truth, in every age of our republic. 

That these hunter tribes should not perceive that the annual distribution of the 
principal of their funds, instead of the interest of it alone, is certain, in all the cases 
of limited annuities, to deprive them, in a few years, of every agricultural and educa¬ 
tional means of improvement, should not excite surprise. They have not yet reached 
a point of civilization from which they can, calmly and truly, estimate their position. 
They are, at the same time, urged to continue the system by considerations of sell- 
gratification, which it is not easy for them to resist. 

It will be further perceived, that those tribes whom we are to regard, if not in the 
mass, yet in their chieftaincies, governments, and leading men, as semi-civilized, have 
developed better fiscal abilities, while, in many instances, the principles of investment 
and funding, adopted by them, are replete with the best axioms of political economy. 

While the hunter and barbarous tribes thus persist in a policy which must be fatal 
to their financial prosperity, it is a question of moment, whether the ready means thus 
supplied to them of self-indulgence, in the use of distilled spirits, is not hurrying 
them onward in a career that must end in their moral wreck. It is seen, from the 
inquiries that have been thus far made, that small tribes, who, but a few years ago, 
were prosperous, and had kept up, if not increased, from the era of 1814, in their 
numbers, have, under the influence of high cash annuities, and unlimited credit, been 
hurried on in the triple career of intemperance, depopulation, and moral degradation. 
Such, indeed, is their fearful progress in this course, that a few years must result in 
the entire extinction of some well-known tribes. Nations who were, but a few years 
back, fearful in their native strength, under the banners of a Tecumseh, a Little 
Turtle, and a Black Hawk, have fallen under influences more fatal to them than 
the rifle, the sword, and the camp-fever. If the Miamies, portions of the Sauks and 
Foxes, and the Winnebagoes, could be persuaded of the hasty and downward steps 


436 


POPULATION AND STATISTICS. 


which they are making in this descending moral scale, it is believed that they would 
pause in their alarming course of depopulation, and revert to a healthier policy. 

The statistics which are presented have been wrung from the tribes. Conscious, 
themselves, of a paucity in their industrial means, and of a disregard of the soundest 
maxims of civilized life, they have resisted, if they have not often misunderstood, the 
humane policy which dictated the investigation. Instead of thereby seeking to 
acquire means of laying a tax on their property — an idea preposterous in itself, as 
none but citizens can, under the constitution, be taxed, the inquiry merely contem¬ 
plated the acquisition of information which might show their condition, and would be 
of incalculable value to Congress, in more perfectly adapting its laws to it. I have, 
in a preceding place, adverted to the difficulties in the way of prosecuting the statis¬ 
tical inquiries among the tribes; but no obstacle is of sufficient weight to deter from 
the effort; nor can there be a reasonable doubt of ultimate and complete success. 

The field of investigation has been enlarged by our recent acquisitions of territory 
on our southern and western boundaries, of the Indian tribes of which, w T e are compa¬ 
ratively uninformed. But this adds another reason to those previously existing, to 
sanction the original plan of the census and statistics. Whatever system may be 
adopted in relation to the cash-annuities paid to the hunter tribes, it is desirable that 
they should be prevented from dissipating their funds on objects not essential to their 
advance in agriculture, arts, education, morals, and Christianity. 

The progress which has been made in the aboriginal census and statistics, will be 
seen by referring to the subjoined tables, in which the facts have been carefully di¬ 
gested. These returns relate exclusively to tribes living east of the Rocky Mountains. 
Respecting the extreme western tribes situated within the chartered limits of Oregon, 
the latest official dates received denote fifty-nine tribes, and fragments of tribes, bear- 
ing specific names; of which number thirty-four tribes live south, and twenty-five tribes 
north of the Columbia River. (See Tables, No. 4.) The entire Indian population of 
this territory is now estimated at 22,033, where Lewis and Clark in 1806 reported 
80,000. A great number of dialects are spoken. The constant tendency of the savage 
and hunter state, as observed in the west, is to make dialects, and to generate petty 
independencies. Even the Cherokees, Choctaws, and other semi-civilized tribes, resist 
confederation. Change of accent, and peculiarities of intonation, are perpetual and 
rapid causes of mutations in their languages. 

Mr. Hale, the ethnographer of the United States Exploring Expedition, reports four 
divisions of Indian population by geographical boundaries, spreading along the Pacific 
coast, between California and the peninsula of Alasca, in north latitude 60°. They 
are as follows :— 

1. North-west division.—Latitude 52° 2', to Charlotte’s Sound and Alasca, 60°. 

2 North Oregon division.—All north of the Columbia to latitude 52°, except Prince 
of Wales Island, and three or four south. 


*? 


POPULATION A N*D ^STATISTICS. 437 

3. South Oregon division.— Sa-aptins, Walla-wallas, &c. 

4. California division.— Darker shade — inferior physical type. 

These divisions are not established physiologically: the era being prior to the settle¬ 
ment of the Oregon question, also renders the divisions imprecise for civil purposes. 
Division number one is wholly without the limits of the United States. Of division 
number two, extending north of the Columbia to latitude fifty-two degrees, three 
degrees of the coast have been assigned to British Oregon, or New Caledonia. 

By dividing the American territory into North and South Oregon, by the line 
of the Columbia, as it has been done by Governor Lane, the results of whose reports 
are given in the statistical tables herewith, the tribes are now accurately designated, 
agreeably to our civil limits, as above expressed. (See Tables No. 5.) 

In order to group the Oregon Indians agreeably to languages, our information is 
inadequate. Mr. Hale subdivides the leading coast divisions into thirteen sections; 
of which the thirteenth section, being the Blackfeet, or Satsika, comprises tribes who 
dwell wholly eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and are not, in any sense, properly 
considered as Oregon Indians. This section is redivided into Satsika, Blood Indians, 
Piekans, and Atsinas, or Fall Indians, who, speaking one generic language, (the 
Atsina-Algonquin,) constitute the chief known local divisions of the people. They 
dwell on the Saskatchiwine, of the Great Lake Winnipec, of Hudson’s Bay, and on 
the Upper Missouri, and its higher north-eastern tributaries. They are found by 
their vocabulary, according to Mr. Mackenzie, to speak a dialect, much altered, of the 
Algonquin. It is certain that important portions of this tribe hunt the plains south 
of latitude 49°, and are therefore within the United States. 

The Shoshonees who occupy the upper waters of the Lewis or Snake River, spread 
throughout the Great Salt Lake Basin, and cross the mountains south into Texas. 

The Unikwa, the Contamis, or Flat-Bows, and the Salish families, (sections 1, 2, 3, 
of Mr. Hale,) are located wholly (or with the exception of g, h, j, k, 1, of the latter) 
north of the boundaries of Oregon. Abstracting these families from the sections 
enumerated, we have pretty fully eight sections of tribes or families, estimated by him; 
or, agreeably to the late official statements of Governor Lane, fifty-nine local tribes, 
numbering 22,000 souls, as the subject of our future investigations in Oregon. 









. 






































' 

















CENSUS RETURNS 


OF THE 

INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES, 


WITH THEIR 


VITAL AND INDUSTRIAL STATISTICS; 

TAKEN UNDER 


The Fifth Section of the Act, approved March 3d, 1847, amending 
the Act to organize the Indian Department. 


t 








CENSUS RETURNS OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. 


•poo[g[ paxijM jo j[T5[j 
jo uajppqg apunaj jo Jaqnmjq 


•pooig poxtjM jo jjbh 
jo uojppqo apq\r JO jaqumjq 


•saijrancj jo spBajj oftimoj 
ajtqAV JO uiiadojnjq jo Jaqum^ 


■9IBJ\[ ‘satptUT!^ JO SpB0jq 
apqAY JO uicado.mq jo jaqiunjq 


'001 P u « 09 JO saSy oqj 
uaaAijaq saxag q}oq jo jaquin{q 


'09 P«« 91 JO saSy oqj 
uaaAijaq sapnuaj jo jaqtunjj 


'09 P UB 81 jo saSy 
aqj uaaAijaq sapq\; jo jaqinnjq; 


^ l 


'91 jo aSy 

aqj japun sapuuaq jo jaqumvj; 


•gt jo aSy 

aqj japun sapsjf jo jaqnmjq 


•saxag qjoq pins saSy 
IP® Jo ‘ s l no S J° JaqniuN 9[oqA\. 


•pmsg; jo aqiJJ, 
aqj m saqtuicj jo jaqmn^i 


P 

P 

o 

PH 

o 

m 

HH 

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a 

o 

p 


HH 


3 

C3 

Js 

•suoisiatq posinSooaj 
jo ‘spang; jo jaqtnnjq 


if 


CM 

CM 


if 


CO CO 
CM 


CM CM 


O 

CM 


OO CO CO H 
UO CO 


co 

co 


if O 
OO i—l 


o 

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ci co n to oj o i os 

CO CM i—i If 1C H CO OO 


O 

co 


o oo 
oo i—i 


05 t- U0 if OO CM t- CM 
CM CM rH WO LO 05 if CD 


05 

CO 


if O CM CO t— CO 00 
if if ri CM 00 CM ^ 


if 

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1— a) H CO if O H O CD 

t— 0510 CO CD H •f uo 

1— C 1—I T—I 1—I CM 


CO CM CM life O P— CO GO CM O CO *0 O I— 

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l—I J— CO i—1 CO CO CD O H W if D 


if O H if 
CM WO CO CM 


rfDOiOODCOiOCOt- 
CM t- ® CM CO if CM H 




p 
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f* § 


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p 

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to © 
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if 


bC 

<1 

G2 

G 

CO 

O 

gG 



56 













































































CENSUS RETURNS OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CO 

CM 


<M 

CM 


•SJOTUJSUBJX JO 
s^ajcLia^uj sv pOiCojduia 
0 «ib oqAV saiRj\[ jo aaqumjq 


•a.in;[nouSy A’q 
saqiim3j jiaqj xsisqns oqM. 
saiiiiuRj jo spxjojj jo jaqumjj 


•osuqQ aqi Xq 
saxprauj Jiaqi isisqns oqM. 
saqiinuj jo spROjj jo jaqumjg 


° i 

CM 


•puxia ujoq saosja^ jo .loqum^j 


•s^oipi jo joqninj^ 


•onusuj jo soi^Ranq jo .loqum^ 


•suosjoj 

quinQ pin? J 80 (j jo joqinnjtf 


\n?o\ oqi inqiiM. 
‘o^ina^ ‘sq^x?a(i jo aaqmnjsj; 




,,rca A oqi uiqiiM 

‘sqiuofl jo Joqnmjsj 


•juo^ oqi uiqiiM. 
‘aXBiaoj ‘s-qjjig; jo aaqnmjsj; 


\n?o^ oqi uiqiiM. 
6 9X'«H ‘squng jo .laqinn^ 


aqi Snijnp iCpinBj 
oqi in soSteixrBj^ jo aaqran^ 


a 

Ph 

o 

m 

HH 

o 

0 

a 

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M .2 


o 


■snoismg pasra3oD8.i 
ao ‘sputsg jo aoqum.j 


•sdnojQ-qng 

I'BOiqduXoOo;) .to saqt.ix jo jaqranhj 


05 r}< CM rH 




cq «3 a 

cq co 


cq 


D t- 00 CO 10 00 lO CO 

O 05 CO Tti 05 1—I 


GO 

cq 


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HCOiOOMt-COCOCO 




Tfl <x> i—i co 


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^ e_. e. e_. ? . e . t . » . 


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£ £ £ £ 

a> <© a> 03 

Jz; Jzi £ fci 


!>| 

£ 


OOOqu.w^. 


O 

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33 


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03 <X> <D O 

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g P3 


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H(NM^lO(Ot-MO)OH(NCOTj( 


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Eh go ^ if. 


lO CO t— 00 


cq 


to. 


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02 


442 























































































CENSUS RETURNS OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



tc 

■aSxjnSa'Bq qsqSng aqj qnads 



05 O 

co 

o 

o 

CO 

CM 

ic 

05 

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xnso oq.w ua,rp[tqQ jo jaqumjq 



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u- 


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rH 

o 

CO CO 

05 


00 


CO 

00 

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rM 

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uajpxiqQ a^maj jo jaqran^ 

rH 


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rH 

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rH 



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: 






rH 

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: 



co 




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co 

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sxs paSuSaa saosjag jo jaqxan^j 

: 








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paxdnooo suosjag jo jaqxixxx^ 

: 




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paxdnooo suosjag jo jaqxnnjj 





: 





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CM 

paxdnooo snosjag jo jaqnmjq 

: 



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paiduooo saosjaj jo jaqran^; 

| 



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i 

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co 

•sjajxiadjxsQ sb 

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rH rH 

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t- 

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r- 

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u- 

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paxdnooo snosjag jo jaqmnjq 












CM 

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rH rH 

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o 

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paxdnooo snosjag jo jaqxnn^j 












rH 

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•sjoxxifsuxi.xx jo sjajajdjajxxj sb 
pa.fo[dtxxa sapnxxaq; jo jaqxnnu 




rH 


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03 jj*> <3 JO 
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c3 


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QQ GO <X! m Eh m 


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jo ‘sptrBg jo jaqxnnjq 


•sdnojg-qng 

|Goiqduj3oa£) jo saqux jo jaqxnnsj 


HCTCOHiwjtCt-SOOiOHCTMH 


w. 

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no to t- oo 


fcfl 

< 

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p 

GO 

o 

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443 


































































































CENSUS RETURNS OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. 




CO 


10 


rtn 


CO 


CM 

TP 




sSarqooig jo sjibj jo aaqinnjsj 




CO 

CM 


O 

CM CO 


•0AOM. 

undsauiojj jo spiBj^ jo jaqum^ 


•unds xb[j jo spuno j jo joqum^; 


‘0AB0A1 JO ‘}IUq ‘aids 
ubd oqM. sajBuiaj jo aaqums^ 


•oisuj^; juooa paipnis 
0ABq oqM. sop^iaa^ jo jaqum^ 


’Oisnj^; iboOj^ paipnjs 
0ABq oqM. S0 jbj\[ jo jaqian^; 


•0^LLA pUB pB8J 

ubd oqAi soiBiaoj jo aaqumj^ 


o 


•0;iJAl pUB pB0J 

ubd oqAi S9jBj\[ jo jaqumsj; 


Oi 

CO 


*sjB[oqog looqog 
-qjBqqng ap?uiej jo aaqumjsj 


00 

CO 


•SJBpqog jooqog 
-qiBqqBg 0lB[\r jo jaqumv^; 


*sjaqoB 0 ^ sb paSuSua 
0JB oqM. sajeiuaj jo jaquinsy 


CO 

CO 


•saaqoBax SB paSsSua 
0jb oqAi sa[Bj\[ jo jaqnmj^ 


0 

O 

r 

cH 

O 

rjj 
I—I 

0 

o 


H 

!>> 


55 O 


10 

CM 


t- 

CM 


lO 

»o 


t}H t*h iH (N 
CO 


CO 00 CM 
C5 r—I 


O 


CO 

Ttl 


cm 


• o co 

• T—I 


CO t- : CM Tf* CM o 

CM H rH Tfl 


CO lO uo 

rH CO 


CM rH CO CO O lO CO CM 
1 —t to rH rH *0 


CO CO lO 
CM 


00 

CO 


o 

CM 


co 

co 


lO • 
CM 


*o 

CO 


tO CM CM 
CM CO CM 


: t— i o 
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d 

ci 


^ g r hi r !4 r X r X r ±i^4 r lxi 5 <1 ^ ^ 


H 

£ 

ft 


o 

ftl 

b- 


ft 


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ftl 

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kH ft 


ft ft 


£ 

o 

ft 


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m o 
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c3 c3 


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o o> 
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OOOOOfflcoffiMtCffiHffl 


ft 


•snoisiAiQ pasmSoDaj 
jo ‘sptreg jo .laqranjj 


•sdnojQ-qng 

pBoiqdBjSoaQ .to saqj.qp jo .laqmn^j 


m 

< 

ft 

i—i 

w 

o 


GO 

CP 

<1 

ft 

o 

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in 

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o 

ft 

tH 

<1 

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ft 

ft 


m 

< 

a 

ft 

ft 

GQ 


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ft H 

o 02 

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ft ft 
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tc 

< 

fti 

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QQ 


5^ 

ft << & 

H g 

ft 

g, O < 

!^i a 
£ ft 

^ no 




lo CO t— CO 


444 
























































































CENSUS RETURNS OF THE INDIAN TRIBES OF THE UNITED STATES. 


to ‘pasrej 

10 streog J° spqsiig; jo aaqran^ 


tH 

10 


•pasrea 

sj-cq jo sjaqsng; jo aaqran^ 


10 

rH 


rH CO 
CO CO 
lO 


Hct 

rH 

tH 

CO 


O CO 05 o to o os 
O CO H 05 10 0 ^ 
CM rH rH CM CM 


rH >0 
O t- 

OO 00 


CO 

00 


O CO o o 
rH CO 00 O 
CO rH CO rH 


O O lO 
CM CO CO 
CO CO 00 


52 

•pasrej 

^oqAi J° spqsng jo jaqnm^ 

57 


3,688 

60 

1,804 

1,000 

227 


200 

rH^ 

ccT 

774 

215 

1,800 

13,192 



UO 


co 

uo 

Ci 

0 

to 


0 

rH 

rH 

01 

O 

05 



ac 


r- 

CO 

U- 

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07) 

05 

O 

rH 

O 

CO 

0 

O 

rH 


GO 


CM 


00 

I— 

rH 

rH 

•o 

QO 

rH 

rH 

O 

O 


ujof) jo siaqsng jo jaqinntf 

rH 

cmT 

00 " 

vcT 

rH 


o' 

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co"' 

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co" 











rH 



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TABLES 

OF THE 

INDIAN POPULATION 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 


1. INDIAN POPULATION OF TEXAS, FROM THE LATEST 

AUTHORITIES 


Number 

of 

Tribes. 

Names of Tribes. 

Butler 

and 

Davis, 

1846. 

Burnett, 1847. 

Neighbors, 

1849. 

Consoli¬ 

dated 

Estimate, 

1850. 

Number of 
Warriors, 
(Neighbors,) 
1849. 

1. 

Comanches or Na-u-ni. 

14,300 

fl0,000 to 12,000 \ 
[2,000 to 2,500 m.j 

20,000 

15,000 

4,000 

2. 

Kiowas. 

1,500 

1,500 

300 

3. 

Lipans (Apache stock). 


200 w. 

500 

500 

100 

4. 

Ionies.j 



5. 

Caddoes. ;• Associates. 

1,500 


1,400 

1,200 

280 

6. 

An-a-dah-has I 


7. 

Koechies. 



300 

300 

60 

8. 

Waecoes.j 

Witchitas. [Associates. 



9. 

300 


1,000 

1,000 

200 

10. 

Tah-wae-carras J 


11. 

Tonkahiras. 


750 w. 

1,000 to 1,500 wa. 

650 

500 

130 

12. 

13. 

Mus-ka-le-ras ] 

v Apache Bands ... 
Euquatops... J 

Delawares] » . , 

> Associates. 

| 4,000 

l. 

2,0001 

1,500J 

3,500 

[400 

1300 

14. 



650 

525 

130 

15. 

Shawnees J 



16. 

Creeks. 



50 

50 

10 

17. 

Cherokees. 



25 

25 

5 






! ’i_ 

i_ 




29,575 

24,100 

5,915 









































2. INDIAN POPULATION OF NEW MEXICO, FROM THE LATEST 

AUTHORITIES. 


Number 

of 

Tribes. 

Names of Tribes. 

Number of 
Fighting 
Men. 

Number 

of 

Lodges. 

Number of 
Families 
living in 
Houses. 

Total 

Population. 

1 . 

Apaches. 

1100 




2 . 

Jicarillas, local Apaches. 

100 

OOU 

100 


5,500 

3. 

Utahs of Grand Unita River. 

600 

600 


oUU 

4. 

Southern Utahs. 

250 

200 


o,UUU 

5. 

Comanches. 

2000 

2500 


z,UUU 

12,000 

6 . 

Kayugas. 

400 

400 


7. 

Arapahoes. 

450 

400 


z,UUU 

8 . 

Cheyennes. 

500 

300 


ljDUU 
i ann 

9. 

Navajoes*. 

1000 

1000 

l,OUU 

a ADA 

10 . 

Moques*. 

350 


350 

t),UUU 

O AC\C\ 


Pueblos of New Mexico. 



11 . 

Pueblo de Taos. 

69 




12 . 

Pueblo de Picuris. 

50 



9^0 

13. 

Pueblo de San Juan. 

55 



97^ 

14. 

Pueblo de Pojuaque. 

40 



900 

15. 

Pueblo de Santa Clara. 

70 




16. 

Pueblo de San Ildefonso. 

50 



9b0 

17. 

Pueblo de Jemez. 

90 



450 

18. 

Pueblo de Silla. 

50 



9^0 

19. 

Pueblo de Santa Ana. 

60 



300 

20 . 

Pueblo de Cochite. 

100 



500 

21 . 

Pueblo de San Domingo. 

150 



750 

22 . 

Pueblo de San Felipe. 

55 



975 

23. 

Pueblo de Sandia. 

80 



400 

24. 

Pueblo de Isletta. 

90 



450 

25. 

Pueblo de Leutis or Leunis. 

50 



950 

26. 

Pueblo de Laguna. 

180 



900 

27. 

Pueblo de Acoma. 

150 



750 

28. 

Pueblo de Socorro, below El Paso. 

120 



600 

29. 

Pueblo de Isletta, below El Paso. 

.130 



650 

30. 

Pueblo de Zuni. 

597 



2,985 


Moqui Pueblos .-}- 



31. 

Oriva. 

1000 



5 000 

32. 

Sumonpavi. 

300 



1 500 

33. 

J irparivi. 

250 



1 9 50 

34. 

Manzana. 

180 



900 

35. 

Opquive. 

130 



650 

36. 

Chemovi. 

150 



750 

37. 

Tanoquevi. 

180 


900 


Unexplored Part of New Mexico , between the Gila and the 





Southern Boundary of Utah. 





38. 

Ancient Cibolos, N. of the Gila and E. of the Colorado. 




20,000 

39. 

Navajoes, not included above. 




6,500 

40. 

Umahs of the Colorado, and not included in Cali- 





forma; Umanos of the early Spanish writers^... 




5,000 

41 

Apaches, not included above. 




2 000 






92,130 



* These tribes are represented as occupying stone dwellings without roofs, and raising sheep, but still of predatory habits, and formidable enemies, 
f The Moqui Pueblos are supposed to lie due west from Santa Fe. and three or four days’ travel north-west from Zuni. They all speak the same 
language, but are reported to be separate, distinct, and independent republics; though, for the purpose of mutual protection, they join with each other. 

t This tribe, to which writers ascribe an early civilization, contradistinguished from hunter-tribes, may be found, as a group, to absorb the people 
called “Cibolos. 



519 
















































































































3. INDIAN POPULATION OF CALIFORNIA, AGREEABLY TO THE 
RETURNS OF THE SPANISH MISSIONARY AUTHORITIES. 


No. 


Names of Missions. 


Date of 
istablish- 
ment. 

Population. 

Remarks. 

Total 

Population. 

1769. 

1,560 

In 1802. 


1798. 

600 



1776. 

1,000 



1771. 

1,050 



1797. 

600 



1782. 

950 



1786. 

1,100 



1787. 

1,000 



1772. 

700 



1797. 

600 



1791. 

571 



1771. 

1,050 



1770. 


Capital of Province. 


1797. 

960 



1794. 

440 



1777. 

1,300 



1797. 

630 



1776. 

820 




14,931 




1,300 

In 1802. 



16,231 




16,000 




32,231 


32,231 


San Diego. 

San Luis Key de Francia. 

San Juan Capistrano. 

San Gabriel. 

San Fernando. 

San Buenaventura. 

Santa Barbara. 

La Purissima Concepcion . 

San Luis Obispo. 

San Miguel. 

Soledad. 

San Antonio de Padua... 
San Carlos de Monterey. . 

San Juan Bautista. 

Santa Cruz. 

Santa Clara. 

San Jose. 

San Francisco. 


Mustees and Mulattoes 


Wild Mountain Tribes, who were 
never included in the preceding 18 
Spanish Missions .. 


In the number of persons of the caste of white and mixed blood, who are put at 1300, there 
were reported, in 1801 and 1802, — 35 marriages, 182 baptisms, and 82 deaths. This part of the 
population was alone relied on for the defence of the coast, in case of an attack upon it by the mari¬ 
time powers of Europe. The population of Alta California, in 1803, was 15,600. The following 
census of the population, including Indians attached to the soil, who have begun to cultivate fields, 
denotes its gross maximum at three periods; namely,— 

In 1790— 7,748. 

In 1801 —13,668. 

In 1802 —15,562. 

At the last period, there were 67,782 oxen; 107,172 sheep; 1040 hogs; 2187 horses, and 877 
mules. In 1791, there had been only 24,958 head of black cattle, which denotes a prodigious 
increase in a short period, and points out the true resources of the climate. According to the tables 
published by M. Galiano, the Indians sowed in the whole province 874 bushels of wheat, which yielded 
a harvest of 15,197 bushels. — Alcedo’s Geo. Dict. London: 1812. 


520 


















































4. INDIAN POPULATION OF OREGON.* 

No. 

Names of Tribes. 

Main Bands. 

Warriors. 

No. 

Names of Tribes. 

Main Bands. 

Warriors. 


South of the Columbia. 












Brought forward... 

13,305 

2639 

1. 

Snakes or Shoshonees.. 

700 


30. 

Catelamet. 

58 


2. 

Ponashita, much inter- 



31. 

Caloait. 

200 



mixed with the 



32. 

Wakamucks. 

4 



Snakes. 

550 

80 

33 


v Unknown. 


3. 

Contenay. 

400 


34 



4. 

Salish or Flat Heads... 

320 

100 



) 


5. 

Calespelins.over 

1,200 

450 


North of the Columbia. 



6. 

Ponderas or Squiaelps.. 

1,200 

450 

35. 

Makaw or Cape Flat- 



7. 

Kettle Falls or Coloille 




tery Indians. 

1,000 



Indians. 

800 

100 

36 


1 dflf) 

100 

8. 

Conerd Helene, or 



37. 

Snoquamish. 

500 


Printed Hearts. 

500 

100 

38. 

Horn finish. 

500 


9. 

Spokan.about 

1,000 


39. 

Tuanoh ) 


10. 

Oukinegans. 

700 


40. 

Ilokamish j 

500 


11. 

Senpoils. 

500 


41. 

Quallyamish 4 



12. 

Nezperces. 

1,500 

1000 

42 


550 


13. 

Palvas. 

300 


43. 

Sinnamish _) 


14. 

Cayuse. 

800 

200 

44 


350 


15. 

W allawalla. 

1,000 


45 


350 


16. 

Dechutes; Wascopaws. 

300 


46. 

Skeywhamish. 

450 


17. 

Wascopaw. 

200 


47. 

Ska ga ts... 

500 


18. 

Mole Alleg. 

100 

20 

48. 

Hookluhmic Indians... 

220 


19. 

Clackamas. 

60 


49 

Cowlitz. 

1?0 


20. 

Willamette Indians. 

20 


50. 

Chinooks. 

100 


21. 

Clickitats. 

180 

85 

51. 

Quenoil ) 



22. 

Calipoa Indians. 

60 


52. 

Chehaylis j 

oUU 


23. 

Sualatine Indians. 

60 

30 

53. 

Kathlamet 4 



24. 

Yam Hill Indians. 

90 

19 

54. 

Konick. V. 

150 


25. 

Suckamier Indians. 

15 

5 

55. 

Wakanascecies j 



26. 

Umpqua. 

200 


56. 

Tilhulhwit. 

200 


27. 

Killamuck Indians. 

200 


57. 

Wyampam.. 

130 


28. 

Clatsacamin. 

300 


58. 

Y acaaws. 

1,500 


29. 

Clatsop. 

50 


59. 

Piscahoose. 

350 











Carried forward. 

13,305 

2639 


Total. 

22,733 

2739 


* These are the most recent returns of Governor Lane. A heavy depopulation, compared with 
any former period, is shown. 


66 


621 




















































































5. FLORIDA INDIANS. 


Number 

of 

Tribes. 

Names of Tribes. 

Date. 

War¬ 

riors. 

Women 

and 

Children. 

Total. 

1 . 

o 


1847. 

*70 


70 


1847. 

*30 


30 

L. 

9 


1847. 

*12 


12 

A 


1847. 

*4 


4 

£ 


1847. 

*4 


4 





*250 

250 





120 

250 

370 


Estimated increase from various sources in 3 years (1850). 





54 








424 








76 


Remaining in. 1850, agreeably to these data. 






348 


Estimate from other sources entitled to respect. 





500 


* Report of Captain John T. Sprague. 





6. 

POPULATION OF THE TERRITORY OF 

UTAH. 

Number 







Total 

of 

Names of Tribes. 




Population. 

Tribes. 








1 . 

Utahs of the Sources of the Colorado and Great Salt Lake Basin. 



7,000 

2. 

Shoshonees. 







3. 

Snakes... 















4. 

Bonacks. 














4,500 

5. 

Yumpatick-ara, Root-Eaters. 

*53 



'T 





< 






6. 

Koolsatik-ara, Buffalo-Eaters. 







7. 

Penointik-ara, Sugar or Honey-Eaters. 













11,500 


522 


































































7. ULTIMATE CONSOLIDATED TABLES OE THE INDIAN POPU¬ 
LATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Names of Tribes. 


TABLE I. — Tribes whose Vital 
and Industrial Statistics have 
been taken by Bands and Fami¬ 
lies, under the direction of the 
Act of Congress. 

A. Iroquois Group. 

B. Algonquin Group*.. 

C. Dacota Group*.. 

D. Appalachian Group*. 


TABLE II.—Tribes of the new 
States and Territories South and 
West, including the Acquisitions 
from Mexico under the Treaty 
of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 


B. Indian Population of New 

Mexico. 

C. Indian Population of Cali¬ 

fornia.. 


TABLE III.— General Schedule 
of the Tribes located East of the 
Rocky Mountains and the Line 
of the Mississippi, in high north¬ 
ern latitudes; all of whom, to¬ 
gether with those named in 
Table No. 2, remain to be enu¬ 
merated, under the operation of 
the Indian Census in progress. 

Alabamas. (See Muskogees.) 
'Assinaboins, south of lat. 49°.. 
Apaches. (See Texas , New 
Mexico, and Utah.') 

Arapahoes. 

Absarokes, or Crows.. 

rickarees. 

Blackfeet. 

food Indians (few reach the 

Missouri). 

Brothertons. 

Cherokees. 

Creeks... 

Chickasaws (not enumerated) .. 

Choctaws. 

Comanches. (See Texas.) 
Cheyennes. 


Au: 

-'Bio 


Number 
in Tribe. 

Total Po¬ 
pulation. 

5,922 

17,197 

6,570 

5,015 

34,704 


24,100 


92,130 


32,231 

22,733 

11,500 

348 

183,042 


1,000 


3.500 
4,000 

1.500 
13,000 


500 

600 

26,000 

25,000 

5,000 

16,000 


2,500 


98,600 

217,746 


Names of Tribes. 


Brought forward. 

Caddoes. 

Chippewas. (See Algonquin 
Group.) 

Chippewas, west, and Bed River, 

north. 

Crees. (None in the United 
States.) 

Chawas. (See Cheyennes.) 
Cayugas. (See Iroquois Group .) 

Cayugas and Iroquois, west. 

Dionondadies. (See Wyandolts.) 
Dacotas. (See Sioux.) 

Delawares. 

Eutaws. (See Utahs.) 

Foxes and Sacs. 

Folle Avoines. (See Menomo- 
nies.) 

Florida Indians. (See Table 2.) 
Flatheads. (See Oregon.) 

Gros Ventres. 

Green Bay Indians. (See Me- 
nomonies and Oneidas.) 
Iowas. (See Dacota Group.) 

Kiowas. 

Kickapoos. 

Kanzas. 

Kaskaskias. 

Menomonies. 

Mandans. 

Minitarees. 

Miamies. 

Missouris. 

Mohawks. (See Iroquois Group.) 

Munsees. 

Ottowas. (See Algonquin 
Group.) 

Ottowas, west. 

Otoes. 

Omahas. 

Oneidas. (See Iroquois Group.) 
Onondagas. (See Iroquois 
Group.) 

Ogellahs. 

Pawnees. 

Poncas. 

Pottawatomies. 

Peorias. 

Piegans. (See Satsika, Blood, 
and Blackfeet.) 

Piankeshaws. 


Carried forward. 


Number 
in Tribe. 


98,600 

2,000 


1,500 

30 

1,500 

2,400 

3,000 


2,000 

600 

1,600 

200 

2,500 

300 

2,500 

500 

500 

200 


300 

500 

2,000 


1,500 

17,000 

700 

3,200 

150 


200 


145,480 


Total Po¬ 
pulation. 


217,746 


217,746 


* The census, in these groups, has been carried no farther, but is in progress. 


523 









































































k 


W 


*Ss> 


V? 


Names of Tribes. 

Number 
in Tribe. 

Total Po¬ 
pulation. 

Names of Tribes. 

-**- 

Number 
in Tribe. 

Total Po¬ 
pulation. 



145,480 

400 

1,000 

217,746 

Brought forward. 

956 

385,076 


Quappas. 

Ricarees. (See Jlurickarees.) 

. 

Massachusetts — 

Marshpee. 


Sioux of the Mississippi (not 
enumerated in No. 1). 

9,000 

5,500 

400 


Chippaquadie. 

Christiantown. 




Sioux of the Missouri (not enu¬ 
merated in No. 1). 

Satsika. (See Blackfcet, &c.) 
Stnekbridoes. 


Gay Head. 

Assonets of Troy or Fall River. 

Herring Pond. 

flasflTiamifift. 

■ 847 



Senecas. (See Iroquois Group.) 
St. Regis Tribe. (See Iroquois 
Group.) 

Seminoles. 

1,500 


Punkapog. 

Natic. 

Dudley. 

(rra.ft.OTi. 




Senecas and Shawnees. (See 
Iroquois Group.) 

Swan Creek and Black River 
Chippewas (not enumerated 

in Algonquin Group). 

Snakes. (See Table a.) 
Shoshonees. (See Table \.) ■ 

Tetans. 

Tonewandas. (See Iroquois 
Group.) 

Utahs. (See Table Y) 
Wyandots. (See Iroquois 
Group.) 

Winnebagoes. (See Dacota 
Group.) 

Weas. 


Yarmouth. 

[All mixed with the African 
race but 8 or 10.] 

Rhode Island — 

Narragansetts. 




200 


420 



3,000 


Connecticut — 

Mobegans at Mohegan. 

Mohegans at Stonington. 

Mohegans at Groton. 

300 

50 

50 



250 


New York — 

Iroquois. (See Iroquois Group.) 
Algonquins, not enumerated 

40 



Yanktons. (See Sioux of the 
Missouri.) 






167,330 

Virginia — 

Nottoways, mixed with the 
African race. 




TABLE IV. —Fragmentary 
Tribes still existing within the 
Boundaries of the old States. 


40 





South Carolina — 

Catawbas. 

200 



Maine — 

Souriquois of St. Johns. 

300 


North Carolina — 

Catawbas. 

250 



Passamaquoddies. 

Penobscots. 

379 

277 


Cherokees. (See Table 1.) 






3,153 

3,153 



956 




Carried forward. 

385,076 

Grand Total. 


388,229 







[There may, in addition to these numbers, be from 25,000 to 35,000 Indians, within the area of the 
unexplored territories of the United States.] 

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, 

Agent Census, &c., Act of March 3, 1847. 

Approved, 

L. LEA, 

„ _ . Commissioner Indian Affairs. 

Office Indian Affairs, 

July 22, 1850. 



524 




































































APPENDIX. 

INQUIRIES, 

RESPECTING THE HISTORY, PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS, 

OF THE 

Snbian Ctibtt of tjj* Wto states. 


( 525 ) 




to 













































































































INQUIRIES, ETC. 


HISTORY. 

1 . Origin. —What facts can be stated, from tradition, respecting the origin, early history and migrations 
of the tribe; and what are the principal incidents known, or remembered since A. D. 1492 ? Can they 
communicate anything on this head, of ancient date, which is entitled to respect ? What is the earliest event, 
or name, in their origin or progress, which is preserved by tradition, and from what stock of men have they 
sprung ? 

2. Tribe and Geographical Position. — By what name are they called, among themselves, and by 
what name, or names, are they known among other tribes; and what is the meaning of these respective names? 
State the various synonyms. Where did the tribe dwell, at the earliest date; what was its probable number, 
and the extent of territory occupied or claimed by it? How has their location, numbers, and the extent of 
lands or territories, varied since the earliest known period; and what are the general facts, on these heads, at 
the present time ? 

3. Ancient or Modern Location. —Are they of opinion, they were created by the Great Spirit, on the 
lands, or are they conquerors, or possessors through the events of war, or from other causes ? Can they recollect 
the first interview with whites, or Europeans — the first sale of lands, or treaty made by them — the introduction 
of fire-arms, woollen clothing, cooking vessels of metal, ardent spirits, the first place of trade, or any other 
prominent fact in their economical history? 

4. Vestiges of Early Tradition. — Have they any tradition of the creation, or the deluge, or of their 
ancestors having lived in other lands, or having had knowledge of any quadrupeds which are foreign to America, 
or crossed any large waters, in their migration? Is there any idea developed among them by tradition, allegory, 
or otherwise, that white people, or a more civilized race, had occupied the continent before them ? 

5. Have they any Name for America? — If there be no direct term applicable to the entire continent, 
search their oral traditions in the hope of detecting the name. 

6. Reminiscences of Former Condition. — Did they, before the discovery, live in a greater degree of 
peace with each other — had they formed any ancient leagues, and if so, of what tribes did they consist, how 
long did these leagues last, and when and how were they broken? Did they build any forts or mounds in their 
ancient wars, or were the earth-works we find in the West erected before they arrived, and by whom, in their 
opinion, were these works erected ? 

7. Names and Events as helps to History. —What events have happened, in their history, of which 
they feel proud, or by which they have been cast down ? What tribes have they conquered, or been conquered 
by, and who have been their great men ? Have they suffered any great calamity in past times, as from great 
floods, or wild beasts, from epidemic or pestilential diseases, or from fierce and sudden assailants ? And have 
they, in such cases, had any renowned or wise leader, or deliverer ? 


( 527 ) 


528 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


8. Present Rulers and Condition. —Who is their ruling chief? Who are their present most noted 
chiefs, speakers, or war captains ? State their names, and give brief sketches of their lives. When did the 
tribe reach their present location, and under what circumstances? 

9. Languages spoken as a means of Inquiry. — Does the tribe speak one or more dialects, or are 
there several languages spoken, or incorporated in it, requiring more than one interpreter, in transacting business 
with them? Are there aged persons who can state their traditions? 


INTERNATIONAL RANK AND RELATIONS. 

10. What Rank and Relationship does the Tribe bear to other Tribes? — Do their traditions 
assign them a superior or inferior position in the political scale of the tribes; and is this relationship sanctioned 
by the traditions of other tribes ? To what mode can we resort to settle discordant pretensions to original rank, 
and affinities of blood ? Are their names for themselves, or others, any clue in the latter case, and if not , must 
the languages he essentially relied on, to prove original affinities ? Is the relative rank or kindredship of the 
tribe, denoted by terms taken from the vocabulary of the family ties, as uncle, grandfather, brother, &c. ? If so, 
what tribe is called grandfather, &c. ? 

11. Proof from Monuments. —Are there belts of wampum, quippas, or monuments of any kind, such as 
heaps of stone, &c., to prove the former existence of alliances, leagues, or treaties among the tribes? If so, 
describe them, and the places where they are to be found. 

12. Proof from Devices. —What is the badge, or, as it has been called, the totem of the tribe — or if it 
consist of separate clans, or primary families, what is the number of these clans, and what is the badge of each ? 
And do these totems, or badges, denote the rank, or relationship, which is sought to be established by these 
queries ? 

13. Magnitude and Resources of Territory, a cause of the Multiplication of Tribes. — 
Have geographical features, within the memory of tradition, or the abundance or scarcity of game, had any 
thing to do with the division and multiplication of tribes and dialects, either among the Atlantic or Western 
tribes? Are there any remembered feuds, family discords, or striking rivalries among chiefs, or tribes, which 
have led to such separations, and great multiplication of dialects? 

14. Proofs from Geography. —What great geographical features, if any, in North America, such as 
the Mississippi River, Alleghany Mountains, &c., are alluded to, in their traditions, of the original rank and 
movements of the tribe: and was the general track of their migrations, from or towards the North or the 
East ? 


GEOGRAPHY. 

15. Figure of the Globe. — Have the Indians any just ideas of the natural divisions of the earth, into 
continents, seas and islands ? What ideas have they of the form of the earth ? 

16. Local Features of the Country inhabited. — What are the chief rivers in the territory or 
district occupied by the tribe ? State their length, general depth and breadth — where they originate — how 
far they are navigable; what are their principal rapids, falls and portages, at what points goods are landed, and 
into what principal or larger waters they finally flow. 

17. Lakes and Springs. — Are there any large springs, or lakes, in the district, and what is their char¬ 
acter, size and average depth; and into what streams have they outlets ? If lakes exist, can they be navigated 
by steamers; if gigantic springs, do they afford water-power, and to what extent? 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


529 


18. Surface of the Country. What is the general character of the surface of the country occupied by 
the tribe? Is it hilly or level fertile or sterile ] abundant or scanty in wood and water — abounding or 
restricted in the extent of its natural meadows, or prairies ? W hat grains or other products do the Indians raise 
in the district, and what are its general agricultural advantages, or disadvantages? What are its natural 
vegetable productions ? 

19. Facilities for Grazing. — Are cattle and stock easily raised — do the prairies and woods afford an 
abundant supply of herbage spontaneously — are wells of water to be had at moderate depths, where the surface 
denies springs, or streams, and is there a practicable market for the surplus grain and stock ? 

20. Physical Effects of Firing the Prairies. — Has the old practice of the Indians of burning the 
prairies to facilitate hunting, had the effect to injure the surface of the soil, or to circumscribe, to any extent, 
the native forests ? 

21. Waste Lands. — Are there any extensive barrens, or deserts, marshes or swamps, reclaimable or irre¬ 
claimable, and what effects do they produce on the health of the country, and do they offer any serious obstacles 
to the construction of roads? 

22. Effects of Volcanic Action. —Is the quantity of arable land diminished by large areas of arid 
mountain, or of volcanic tracts of country, with plains of sand and cactus? If so, are these tracts wholly arid 
and without water, or do they afford a partial supply of herbage for horses, sheep, or mules ? 

23. Climate. —Is the climate generally dry or humid? Does the heat of the weather vary greatly, or is it 
distributed, through the different seasons, with regularity and equability ? What winds prevail ? Is it much 
subject to storms of rain with heavy thunder, or tornadoes, and do these tempests of rain swell the streams so as 
to overflow their banks, and destroy fences and injure the crops ? State the general character of the climate, 
giving meteorological tables if you can. 

24. Saline Productions. — Does the district produce any salt springs of value, any caves, yielding salt¬ 
petre earth ; or any beds of gypsum, or plaister of paris; or of marl, suitable for agricultural purposes ? 

25. Coal and other Mineral Products. — Has the country any known beds of stone coal, or of iron 
ores, or veins of lead, or copper ores, or any other valuable deposits of useful metals, or minerals ? State 
localities and transmit, when opportunity offers, specimens. 

26. Wild Animals. — What is the general character and value of the animal productions of the district? 
What species of quadrupeds most abound ? State their number and kind, and what effect the fur trade has had 
in diminishing the value of the country for the purposes of hunting. What kinds of animals decreased earliest, 
and what species still remain ? 

27- Ancient Bones. —Do the Indian traditions make any mention of larger, or gigantic animals in former 
periods ? Is there any allusion to the mastodon, megalonyx, or any of the extinct races, whose tusks, or bones, 
naturalists find imbedded in clay, or submerged in morasses ? 

28. Traditions of the Monster Era. — What species are we to understand by the story, on this head, 
told to Mr. Jefferson, or by the names Ya-ga-sho, Quis quis, Win-de-go, Bosh-ca-dosh, or others, which 
are heard in various dialects? 

29. -Animals whose Figures are much used as the Chief Armorial Marks of Tribes. — Have 
they any peculiar opinions, or striking traditions, respecting the serpent, wolf, turtle, grizzly bear, or eagle, 
whose devices are used as symbols on their arms, or dwellings, and how do such opinions influence their acts on 
meeting these species in the forest? 

67 


580 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


80. Era op the Importation of the Horse. — Have they any tradition respecting the first introduc¬ 
tion of the horse, upon this continent, and from what qualities, or properties, do they name this animal ? 

31. Charts on Bark, &c. — Are they expert in drawing maps or charts of the rivers, or sections of country, 
which they inhabit? State their capacities on this subject, denoting whether these rude drawings are accurate, 
and whether they evince any knowledge of the laws of proportion, and transmit, if you can, specimens of 
them. 


ANTIQUITIES. 

32. First Epoch of Man on the Continent. — Are there any antique works, or remains of any kind, 
which are the result of human industry in ancient times, in your district? And what traditions, or opinions, 
have the tribes, on the subject? 

33. Mounds, Pyramids, Teocalli. — What is generally thought by men of reflection, to be the probable 
origin and purpose of the western mounds ? Are they of one, or several kinds — of one, or several eras — and 
were they erected by one, or several nations, who lived, at various periods, in the country, at the same locations ? 
Were they places of observation — of sacrifice, of burial, or of military defence? Is the mound sui generis with 
the Aztec or Toltec type of pyramids, or teocalli of the earlier periods? Were the later Indian structures in 
Mexico, improvements upon these rude earthen pyramids of the North, or did the knowledge of these more 
magnificent structures, or the power to construct them, degenerate in the more Northern latitudes of the conti¬ 
nent, where the chase absorbed attention ? State your views on this head, and give plans and descriptions of the 
mounds examined, carefully noting the bearings of the compass, the elevations of the mounds, and of the plains 
or hills on which they are based, their exact geometrical figure, and the relative position of the nearest rivers, or 
streams. State also, whether there be any ancient articles of sculpture of stone or shell, or any vases or other 
forms of pottery, from which the state of arts and character of the builders may be inferred; and what time has 
probably elapsed from an examination of the forest growth, since these structures were deserted. 

34. Ancient Fortifications or Military Works. — Has the progress of settlements west of the 
Alleghanies, and the felling of trees and clearing up of lands, disclosed any ancient embankments, ditches, or 
other works of earth, or stone, having the character of forts, or places of military defence? If so, note whether 
such works manifest in their structure, any of the modern or ancient principles of engineering. Are there any 
features resembling the Roman, Grecian, Carthaginian, or Libyan modes of circumvallation, or evidences of 
military art in the approach to fortified places before the discovery of gunpowder, and the invention of fire¬ 
arms? Are there any ancient missiles of stone, flint, chert, or other fossil and hard bodies, or adjunct anti¬ 
quities which may throw light on the main subject? Describe accurately such works, and give therewith com¬ 
plete topographical sketches of the country, denoting the strength and importance of the supposed positions of 
defence. Observe also, whether there be anything answering to a horn-work, or redoubt, or any spring, or well, 
by which water could be supplied to a besieged place. 

o5. Circular Works. Are there any circular, or ring-forts, and how do these differ, in the principles of 
defence they disclose, from the angular or irregular works? Were these forts circular parapets with wooden 
pickets were they pierced for gate-ways ? How were these gate-ways crowned and defended, and what are 
the characteristic features of this species of ancient earth-works ? 

•j6. Imitative Mounds. — In examining the western mounds, are there any of an imitative, or allegorical 
character, or resembling an elk, serpent, deer, wolf, or other animate object in their shapes? 

37. Proofs of Antique Agriculture or Horticulture. — Does the level surface of the prairie 
country, which is now partially over-run by forest, preserve any traces of a plan or design as of ancient furrows 
oi garden-beds, which appear to have been abandoned at a definite period ? 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


531 


38. Old artificial Land-Marks, or Pseudo Monuments. — Is there any ancient or noted mark on 
rocks, or any artificial orifice or excavation in the earth, or other land-mark known in local tradition, which 
denotes historical events? 

39. Antique Implements and Vessels of Pottery. — What is the general character of the antique 
implements, ornaments, or utensils of earthenware found in your district of the country ? If vases, kettles or 
pots, or other vessels of clay are found — of what kind—how were they formed, on a potter’s wheel, or by hand — 
how were the materials compounded — was the ware burned completely or partially — was it glazed, or unglazed ? 
Is it ornamented, and how ? Does it resemble the ancient Etruscan ware, the terra-cotta, or any ancient 
rude form of earthenware. Transmit drawings and descriptions of each species of article illustrative of the 
potter’s art. 


40. Pipes. — If pipes are found, what is the material, is it stone, steatite, or clay — how are they formed — 
to admit a stem, or to be smoked without, and what are their shapes, sizes and ornaments ? 


41. Utensils of Stone. — How many kinds were there? Describe them, and give figures. How was the 
axe usually formed, and from what materials ? What was the shape and construction of the stone tomahawk ? 
Was it always crescent-shaped, and pointed? What was the range of forms of the ancient implements for 
pounding corn, roots, and their rude bread-stuffs; and of their instruments for fleshing skins, and for removing 
charcoal from timber, &c., cut by the process of fire? Do these instruments denote a people advanced in the 
arts, or still in the rude state of mere hunters ? Are there ornaments of hone, spar, gems, mica, copper, silver, 
gold, mosaic, or glass, denoting a higher degree of skill than the preceding; and are there any evidences, in the 
examination of this branch of antiquities, which prove the makers to have understood the mechanical processes 
of boring, turning, polishing, moulding, or making impressions in clay, or cutting hard substances ? 

42. Manufacture of Darts, Arrow-points and other Missiles. — What was the process of mani¬ 
pulation of these, often delicately wrought, articles? What species of mineral bodies were chiefly used — and 
how was the cleavage of them effected? Did the art constitute a separate trade, or employment? If darts 
abound, what is the material and size ? Do they differ much in size, and apparent object, some being for war 
and others for hunting; and are there any elongated in the shape of spear-heads, or javelins? How many 
species of darts, spears, &c., were there? Describe them and give figures of the size and descriptions of the 
uses of them. 


43. Distribution of Sea-Shells Inland. —What species of sea-shells have been found, in ancient 
graves, or mounds, at remote points from the ocean ? At what localities, on the sea-coasts, do these species now 
abound, and do they furnish any light on the probable track of migration ? 


44. Shell-coin, Wampum, Ancient Currency. — How many kinds of wampum were there? What 
shells were employed? What was the value of each kind? How was it estimated? Vide 61. 


45. Ancient use of Metals. — Was iron, copper, tin, or any other metal used by the aboriginal tribes 
in America, for the purposes of art, prior to the discovery of the continent by Columbus ? In the copper arm- 
bands or other implements, of old graves, are there any evidences of the arts of hammering, polishing, soldering, 

or engraving? 


46. Hieroglyphics, or Ancient Alphabets.— 
structures, disclose any ancient alphabet, hieroglyphics, 
which promises to reflect light on the obscure periods 


Do the rocks of America, or any ancient architectural 
or system of picture-writing, capable of interpretation, 
of American history ? 


astronomy. 

47 The Barth and its Motions. -What is the amount of their knowledge on this subject? Do they 
beMeie the Earth to be a plane, a globe, or a semWrole ? What relation deals it bear, m their opmion, to the 


532 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


sun and moon and planets ? Do they believe the planets to be other worlds, which are inhabited by men ? 
Some of their oral tales denote this. Extend the inquiry. 

48. Creation. — Have they any idea of the universe, or other creations in the field of space, which have in 
their belief been made by the Great Spirit ? 

49. The Sen. — What is their opinion of the nature and motions of the sun? Do they believe it to be a 
place of fire ? Can they be made to comprehend that the sun does not daily rise and set, and that this apparent 
motion arises from the diurnal revolution of the earth ? 

50. The Sky, or Firmament. —Why do we observe, in their picture-writings, the shy drawn in the form 
of a half circle, resting on the plane of its truncation ? Do they believe the shy, or heavens, to be circumscribed 
by a material mass of some hind, having orifices, through which the stars and planets shine ? 

51. Eclipses. — How do they account for eclipses? Do they believe, as the Aztecs did,that they arise from 
the shadow of some other body interposed ? What is implied by the term Gezis Nebo, or dead sun ? 

52. Length of the Year. —How may moons, or months, compose the Indian year? Have they made 
any approach to the astronomical hnowledge of the ancient Mexicans, who determined the length of the year at 
365 days, 5 hours and 29 minutes? Have they made any attempt to compute a solar year? If, as has been 
said, the Indian year consists of thirteen moons of twenty-eight days each, their year would consist of 364 days. 
If of twelve moons of thirty days each, it would consist of 360 days. How far is either statement correct, 
or fanciful? Or have the Indians of these latitudes any definite or exact notions on the subject? 

53. Solstices. — Do they notice the length of the summer and winter solstices, and of the vernal and 
autumnal equinoxes? 

54. Cycles. Have they a cycle of 52, 60 or 120 years, or of any fixed or stated length, at the end of which 
they believe, with the ancient Aztecs, that the world will come to a close; and do they believe that it is the 
power and efficacious supplications of the Indian priests to the Great Spirit that causes its renewal ? 

55. Divisions of Iime. Have they any name for the year, as contradistinguished from a winter? Have 
they any division of time resembling a week ? The Aztecs had a division or month of thirteen days, and a 
week of five days. Are there any analogous divisions among our Indians ? Is the day divided into hours, or 
any other sub-portions of time ? 

56. Names for Stars. Have they names for any considerable number of the stars? If so, which stars, 
and what names do they give them ? 

57. Astrologi. Have they anything resembling the ancient signs of the Zodiac? Do they attach 
personal oi other influences to the stars? Is the moon thought to influence men, plants, or animals ? Is corn 
planted at particular times of the moon’s phases ? What superstitious opinions are believed to affect its growth ? 

58. Meteorological Phenomena. —What are their opinions of the Aurora Borealis ? Have they any 
definite notions of the Milky A ay ? What is their theory of the origin and nature of clouds, rain, hail, and 
winds and tornadoes ? W hat is thought of meteors ? Have they formed any opinions of comets ? Do they 
connect any supeistitions with the phenomena of falling stars? How do they account for the rainbow? 

59. Origin of Astronomical Opinions. — Are there any coincidences with the oriental system of com¬ 
puting time. Ha^e they any peculiar notions respecting the cardinal points? Are there any opinions expressed 
w iich^ may baie been derived from any of the ancient and peculiar theories of cosmogony? Must we look 
to their fictitious tales and allegories for their notions on this and other abstruse subjects, respecting which they 
are unwilling, or unable, to communicate direct information ? 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


533 


60. Indian Paradise. — la what part of the heavens, or the planetary system, do the Indians locate their 
paradise, or their happy hunting grounds, and land of souls ? 


ARITHMETIC. 

61. Numeration. — Does the tribe count by decimals ? Are there any tribes who use the ventigissimal system 
of the Aztecs ? Do any of the tribes count by fives ? How high can they, with exactitude, compute numbers ? 
What are the Indian names of the digits ? State them. State also, in what manner the computation is carried 
from 10 to 20, and what are the terms for each additional decimal up to 100 ? How is the process continued 
from 100 to 1,000, and to 10,000 ? Are the generic denominations carried on, with exactitude, to a million ? 
Give the extent of their power of computation, with examples of their appreciation of high numbers. 

62. Coin. —Was the wampum or any form of sea-shells, referred to in No. 44, anciently used, or is it now 
used, to represent numbers and value, and to constitute a standard of exchange? Had the tribe originally, or 
has it now, any thing whatever of the nature of a currency ? If a grain of seawan, peag, or wampum , was the 
lowest fraction, of value, or unit, in computation, did not the decimal system mark accurately the entire scale, and 
denote accurately, by the addition or multiplication of decimals, the price of any commodity, up to hundreds, 
tens of hundreds, &c. ? Do they understand federal money? 

63. Keeping Accounts. — How were accounts formerly kept? And how are they now kept? If the 
terms, skin, plue, and abiminiqua , or others, are employed in the interior trade as synonymous, and as the 
standard of value, in which accounts are kept, what is the scale of the computation ? How are musk-rats and 
other smaller furs, for instance, computed into “skins” of the standard value? Are large beaver-skins, or skins 
above one pound weight, valued above a technical or standard plue, or skin? Are otter-skins, cross foxes, or any 
other skins, exempted from this rule ? How are deer and buffalo skins valued ? 

64. Pictorial Helps to Memory. — Are signs, or pictorial devices, used to any extent, in keeping the 
accounts in commerce; or in denoting numbers in their pictorial records? 

65. Elements of Figures. —Did a single perpendicular stroke stand for 1, and each additional stroke 
mark the additional number ? Are the ages of deceased persons or number of scalps taken by them, or war 
parties which they have headed, recorded on their grave-posts, by this system of strokes ? Is the cross used, as 
it is said to be among some of the Algonquin tribes, to denote 40 ? Did the dot, or full comma, stand as a 
chronological sign for a day, or a moon or month or a year? Or was its meaning fixed by adjunct figures? 


MEDICINE. 


66. General Practice. — What is the general character of their medical practice? Are they careful and 
tender of their sick, and is this attention more marked in relation to children and youth, than to the aged 
and decrepid ? 

67. Anatomy. — Have their professed doctors and practitioners of medicine any exact knowledge of anatomy; 
of the theory of the circulation of the blood, or the pathology of diseases? 

68 Treatment of Complaints. —How do they treat fevers, pleurisy, consumption of the lungs, obstruc¬ 
tions of the liver, deranged or impeded functions of the stomach, constipation, or any of the leading complaints ? 


69 Medicines. — What species of plants or other roots are employed as emetics, or cathartics? How are 
hey prepared or applied? How are their medicines generally preserved from the effects of heat, or humidity. 

70 Depletion. — Do they bleed in fevers ? And what are the general principles of the application of the 
ndian lancet? Is the kind of cupping which they perform with the horn of the deer efficacious, and in w at 

Danner do they produce a vacuum ? 


534 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


71. Stoppage of Bleeding in Aneurisms or Cuts. —Have they any good styptics, or healing or drawing 
plasters? Are bandages and lints skilfully applied, and timely replaced, or removed? 

72. Healing Art. — Is the known success with which they treat gun-shot wounds, cuts, or stabs, the result 
of the particular mode of treatment, or of the assiduity and care of the physicians ? 

73. Amputation. — Do they ever amputate a limb, and how, and with what success? Are the arteries 
previously compressed? Have they any surgical instruments? Are they skilful in the use of splints, and the 
necessary supports to the injured limb? What mechanical contrivances have they for removing the sick, 
wounded, or maimed, fx-om the woods, or in their lodges ? 

74. Theory of Diseases and their Remedy. —What is the state of the Indian materia mediea? Have 
they any efficacious remedies for female complaints? Do they employ, understandingly, any metallic medicine? 
Do they understand the nature of an oxyde? Are their compound decoctions made with such knowledge of the 
principles of combination, or admixture, as to insure their efficacy ? State what is known of their medicines, 
elementary or compound, and the theory of diseases. 

75. Vapor Baths, Paralysis, &c. — How do they treat imposthumes, and eruptions of the skin? What 
is the cause of their known and general failure to treat small-pox, or varioloid ? Do men ever interpose their 
skill in difficult cases of parturition; and what is the general character of the medical treatment of mothers and 
children? Have they any treatment for paralysis? Do they employ vapor baths efficaciously for the health of 
their patients? 

TRIBAL ORGANIZATION AND GOVERNMENT. 

76. Internal Constitution of Tribe. — Does the ti’ibe consist of one or more clans, or sub-divisions ? 
Ai - e the rights of the clans clearly defined, and what are the general principles of the organization and govern¬ 
ment of the tribe ? Is it organized on the totemic system, that is to say, is it divided into separate clans, or 
classes, bearing the name of some bird, quadruped, or other object in the animate or inanimate kingdoms? If 
so, of how many clans, or totemic classes or bands, did it originally consist ? How many does it now consist of, 
and what is their pi-esent relative strength ? State the name of each clan, or sub-division, with its signification 
and origin. 

7 1 ■ Object or Ltility of Divisions into Clans. —What is the apparent object of these devices, 
where they exist? Are they indicative of the original families or distinguished chiefs of the tribe? Are they 
a sign of kindi'ed ? If they denote original consanguinity in the individuals of the bands or tribes, bearing these 
marks, or devices, what is the degree of the affinity, past or present ? If they denote primary families, or chiefs, 
were these devices their names ? Is there any pre-eminence in the clans ? Are the turtle, wolf, and bear clans, 
as it has been said, more honoi'able than others ? Is each clan entitled to one or more chiefs ? And if not thus 
organized, what other principles of division, or association, or distinction, exist ? 

< b. Ciiiefiainships their Tenure. — AVere the chiefs oi'iginally hereditary or elective? If hex'editai’y, 
is the descent in the male or female line ? If in the female line, as among the Iroquois, how can the son of a 
chief become the official successor of his father? 

79. AANiat are the General Powers of the Chiefs in Council? — To what extent is an Indian 
Council a representative assembly of the tribe, and how far are the chiefs invested with authority to act for the 
mass of the. tribe ? What invests their verbal summons, or decision, with a binding force ? How is their 
authority derived ? Is this authority tacitly committed to them, as a common and general function of their 
office as chiefs or sachems, or is it delegated by the mass of the tribe for each particular occasion ? Or are they 
open, at all times, to popular opinion, and the mere exponents of it ? 

80. If the Chiefs be elective, is there anything beyond the tacit Election of Popular 
Opinion? If elected by their distinguished deeds, does the tenure of their office continue beyond the continu- 


APPENDIX —IN QUIRIES. 


535 


ance of such deeds ? If hereditary, have the rights of the chieftainship any force beyond the continued ability 
or capacity of the incumbent, or his descendant, to execute or obey the popular will? Whether, therefore, they 
he elective, or hereditary, is not the disapproval of the mass, or body of warriors, an effective bar to the exercise 
of their powers and functions ? 

81. Is the Democratic Element strongly Implanted? — Do the chiefs, in public council, speak the 
opinions and sentiments of the warrior class, previously expressed by the latter in their separate or home councils; 
or do they particularly consult the old men, priests, warriors, and young men composing the tribe ? Are they 
much subject to be influenced by extraneous opinions? Do they pursue their interests with shrewdness and 
intensity? Is their right to sit in council ever exercised in a manner which is equivalent to giving a vote. 
Are persons for and against a proposition counted, and if so, by whom ? If votes are given, is this a modern or 
an ancient exercise of power, and has it resulted in giving more certainty and satisfaction in decisions. Are 
any powers in fact exercised by the chiefs in advance of public opinion in the tribe ? 

82 What Principles govern the Ultimate Decisions op a Public Council? In what manner 
are the deliberations opened, conducted and closed ? Is there much respect to the ancient ceremonies. Is the 
weather regarded? Are there any official personages who exercise duties equivalent to a crier secretary or 
other legislative or legal functionary? Are questions deliberately considered, or decided off-hand. Are 
decisions made on the principle of majorities, or pluralities ? Were they originally or are the, now requwed 
to be made, in an, case, on the principle of absolute unanimity? Or is the yoice of a leading chief ta 

the expression of the will of the tribe ? 

83 What is the Scope qp the Civil Jurisdiction and the Order of Succession of the 
Chiefs, as Magistrates? —Are decisions, made by single chiefs, or by a body of chiefs m council carried 
implicitly into effect? If a man have forfeited his life, and the question be decided in a council of chiefs, is an 
executioner appointed ? If so, does he use a tomahawk, or club, or arrow ? Is the time, and mode, and place, 
decided by the chief, or council, or left to the executioner, as it was in the case of Myontommo . Are the resu s 
of questions of the restoration of property communicated to the parties at once, or sent by a messenger. 

84 How are Rank and Succession in Office Regulated ? — Is the succession of a chief to an 
office vacated by death, or otherwise, debated and decided in council, or may a person legally, in the right line 
““t, forthwith akume the function of the office? Are new chiefs created b, election, and how? Ma? 
a chief be deposed from his office, and for what offence ? Is the custom of wearing medals to mark distinc¬ 
tion of office, an ancient or a modern one? How many chiefs has the tribe, and how many has each clan 

composing it? 

85 What is the Power of the Priesthood, as an Element in the Decision of Political 

Questions? —Do they constitute a distinct power in the government? If so, do they exercise this power y 
S~ucii, or l other modes? Are the,, iu fact, eouusellors, and what influence do the, Caere,se m 
questions of war or peace, the advance or retreat of a war part,, or the the sale aud cession 1. . 

86 Define the Power of the War Chiefs? —Does their power come in as an 

political organization of the council, or in the exercise of the civil power of the village chiefs or magufeate* m 
L wh re both powers are not concentrated in the same hands? Are the powers of a war and a cnwUhief 
Z united in t Z same person ? If the war chiefs b, exclusive., designated youu 

warrior class, at what age can a voice in their favor be exercised ? Is there any limit, or , S 

man may appropriately express his opinion ? 

R , What the Kiohts op the Matrons in Council?-Ms, this right he exercised for any 
pu^osbT^ o " Are the, permitted, as iu the ancient institutions of the 

seat in Council ? And hare the,, as in that nation, a prescript™ nght of being heard hy an offioml pe™n. who 
bears the character of a messenger from the women ? State the general imp, cs “‘ 0 " ” f h f k ow . 

power of the matrons in the tribe, and inquire whether the widows of d.st.ngu.shed chiefs, or of thote 

lodged wisdom, are ever admitted to sit in council ? 



536 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


88. Who has a Right to call General Councils? What Tribe? — Are there, among the various 
tribes, any who possess the power to summon such councils, as a prescriptive right? If so, designate them, and 
state the extent of this right, the supposed occasion or era of its origin, and the general nature of the subjects 
that may be brought before them. Are such rights to be regarded as vestiges of ancient confederacies, or the 
result of causes which have been in operation only since the discovery of the continent? What occasions of such 
general councils can be referred to? In the Wyandot tribe, and in the Delaware tribe, what are the grounds of 
the ancient right formerly or at present claimed, in this respect, by each ? And in what manner did the growing 
Iroquois supremacy operate to interfere with, or break down, this right, or render nugatory its exercise ? 

89. Private Right to Take Life, or Law of Retaliation. State it. — How is this right 
exercised — is it with or without the assent of the chief presiding over the village, or band ? And when does the 
right stop ? Is it terminated at one, two, three, or more repetitions of its exercise ? If there be no male next 
of kin in a direct line, or of the same totem, to the person murdered, may the right be exercised by collateral 
branches, and to what extent ? Is the right to take life for life, in any case, compromised by accepting presents ? 
^ hat is the usual amount ? Does it depend upon the means or ability of the person who is to suffer the penalty 
of the law of retaliation, or on those of his friends ? Does the intervention of a long time, and the fleeing of the 
murderer, generally allay resentment, and lead to negotiations for compromises? What period is sufficient 
for this change of feeling, and spirit of compromise ? Are efforts for this purpose often utterly rejected ? Is 
there any recognized principle of escape, or place of retreat, analogous to a town, or place of refuge, as among 
certain of the Shemitic tribes ? Are females, in cases of deaths from the feuds of polygamy, &c., vindicated ? 
Are their lives estimated as high as those of males? Are questions of Indian debts due to traders commonly 
brought before the chiefs, to be settled, or adjusted; and have the chiefs, or people, who are committed to your 
official charge as an agent, sufficient knowledge of the power of numbers to enable them to act with prudence ? 
Is a message accompanied with wampum, &c., invested with anything like the equivalent authority of a legal 
summons , in cases of private disputes, or controversies ? 

90. Game Laws, or Rights of the Chase. What are these? — Has each family of the tribe a 
certain tract of country, within the circle of which, it is understood and conceded, that the head or members of 
this family have a particular or exclusive right to hunt ? Are intrusions on this tract the cause of disputes and 
bloodshed ? 

91. Trespasses on the Prescribed Boundaries. — Are furs thus surreptitiously hunted, on another 
man s limits, subject to be seized by the party aggrieved ? If such a cause of quarrel be brought before the 
chiefs, or wise men, is the right awarded according to a fixed rule and understanding, respecting the parcelling 
out, into families, of all the hunting grounds of the tribe ? 

92. Notices of Local Intrusions. —Are warnings of such intrusions frequently given? Or is injury to 
pioperty redressed, privately, like injury to life? Is a forfeit of life often the result of continued intrusions ? 
Or is seizure of the furs hunted deemed sufficient ? 

93. Rules of Hunting, and Division of Game. — If hunting parties or companions agree to hunt 
together, for a special time, or for the season, what are the usual laws, or customs, regulating the hunt ? If one 
peison start an animal, and wound it, and another pursue and kill it, how is the meat divided? Is the game 
equally divided ? Does each retain the skins and furs of the animals actually killed by him ? What is done in 
cases of thefts from traps? 

94. Dispute between Tribes. — If a tribe, or band, pass over the lines and hunt on the lands of another 
tiibe, and kill game there, is it deemed a just cause of war ? Do messages pass, in the first place, between the 
chiefs; and is there a spirit of comity, and diplomacy exercised ? 


INDIAN TRADE. 

95. \\ hat are the Principal Facts, necessary to be known, to Regulate the Indian Trade 
and ommerce, and to preserve Peaceful Relations on the Frontiers? — Has commercial 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


537 


intercourse promoted the general cause of Indian civilization ? How is the traffic in furs and skins conducted, 
throughout its operations? What are its general principles — the place of outfit and supply —the place of 
exchange, the difficulties and risk attending it, and the general chances of profit and loss? 

96. Capacity and Fidelity op the Indians, as Customers. — Are the chiefs and hunters shrewd, 
cautious and exact in their dealings, making their purchases with judgment, and paying up their debts faithfully ? 
Are they moral, sober, and discreet ? Do they rely on memory wholly, in keeping the sum of their indebtedness, 
and the number of skins paid, or are they aided by hieroglyphics, or devices of any kind, on the clerk’s blotter, 
or in any other manner ? Are they exact herein ? If not successful, at the first or second hunt, or but partially 
so, are the credits required to he renewed ? Are they freely renewed ? 

97. Necessity op the Traders to look after their Credits, and their Liability to Loss 
from fluctuations OF Climate. —Is it necessary for the trader to send runners to the Indian hunters’ 
camps, or private lodges, to collect their debts? Are these runners faithful, honest men? Is the result of 
unsuccessful, or deficient hunts, often caused by the migration, to other parts of the country, of some of the 
furred animals relied on, owing to excessive local dryness, or redundant moisture of the season ? Do losses flow 
from these causes? 

98. Rates of Barter — Permanency or value of Debt, and Tax of Local Residence. — Is 
the tariff of exchanges such as, generally, to protect the trader from loss? Is it just and fair? At what period 
after the credits are given, is an Indian debt deemed lad or lost ? Are they bad at two years ? Are the traders 
who conduct the interior exchanges, subject to onerous calls on their charity, or hospitable feelings, by sickness, 
or suffering, in the villages adjacent to their trading houses ? And if so, does this circumstance come in, as a 
just element, in summing up the results of a series of years’ trade, with the tribe ? 

99. What have been the Leading Effects of the Discovery on the Hunter Period? — 
Have the purposes of commerce, since the discovery of the continent, had the effect to stimulate the hunters to 
increased exertions, and thus to hasten the diminution, or destruction of the races of animals whose furs are 
sought ? 

100. Diminution of Animals. — Have the different races of animals declined rapidly since the prosecution 
of the trade ? What animals flee first, or diminish in the highest ratio, on the opening of a new district of the 
remote forest, to trade ? Is the buffalo first to flee ? Is the beaver next ? 

101. Refuse Hunting Grounds. — Are the lands, when denuded of furs, of comparatively little value to 
the Indians, while they remain in the hunter state ? Is not the sale of such hunted lands beneficial to them ? 

102. Area required to subsist a Hunter. — What quantity of territory is required to he kept in its 
wilderness state, in order to afford a sufficient number of wild animals to sustain an Indian family? 

103. Question of the Ultimate Effects of the Failure of Game on the Race. — If the 
diminution or failure of wild animals lead the native tribes to turn their industry to agriculture, is not the 
pressure of commerce on the boundaries of hunting an efficient cause in the progress of Indian civilization ? 
Has not the introduction of heavy and coarse woollen goods, in place of valuable furs and skins, as articles of 
clothing, increased the means of subsistence of the native tribes ? 

104. Moral Consequences of Civilized Intercourse. — What evil effects, of a moral character, have 
resulted from the progress of the Indian trade? Has not the traffic in ardent spirits been by far the most 
fruitful, general and appalling cause of the depopulation of the tribes? How has the introduction of gun¬ 
powder and fire-arms affected the principles of the trade, and what has been the general influence of this new 
element of destruction, on their history and civilization ? Have internal wars or peace been promoted thereby? 
What has been the prominent cause of discord on the frontiers, arising from the transactions of trade and 
commerce? Finally, can this trade be placed on better principles, and what are they? 

68 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


538 

105. Problem of tiieir Civilization. — Are there any serious or valid objections, on the part of the 
Indians, to the introduction of schools, agriculture, the mechanic arts or Christianity ? If so, state them. 
Specify the objections — examine their bearings, and state the results which are reached by your best observation, 
reflection, and judgment. 


LEGISLATION OF CONGRESS. 

106. What Improvements can you suggest in the Existing Intercourse Laws of the United 
States as last revised, with the Indian Tribes? — Are these laws efficient in removing causes of 
discord, and preserving peace between the advanced bodies of emigrants or settlers on the frontiers, and the 
Indian tribes ? Do they provide for difficulties between tribe and tribe ? Is this at all practicable ? 

107. Sources of Discord. —Whence do causes of difficulties and war usually arise, and how are they 
best prevented ? 

108. Rights of the Indians. —What provisions of existing laws appear susceptible, in your opinion, of 
amendment, in order to secure more effectually the rights or welfare of the Indians ? 

109. Fiscal Means. —Could important objects be secured by the introduction of any modifications of the 
provisions respecting the payment or distribution of annuities, the subsistence of assembled bodies of Indians, or 
the investment or application of the treaty funds? 

110. Change of Location. — Is there any feature in the present laws which could be adapted more exactly 
to their present location, or to the advanced or altered state of society at present existing in the tribe ? 

111. Alcoholic Drink. — What provisions would tend more effectually to shield the tribes from the 
introduction of ardent spirits into their territories, and from the pressure of lawless or illicit traffic? 

112. Treaty System. — Is there any feature in the present system of negotiation with the tribes susceptible 
of amendment and improvement? Can the tribes, at this particular phasis of our settlements, and with their 
present increased means, and the consequent temptations to frontier cupidity, be as well negotiated with, in the 
forest, where all the means of improper influence are in full force, as they could be at the seat of Government? 
Are not the expenses of the subsistence of masses of men, women and children, at remote points on the frontier 
unavoidably heavy ? Does not an actual intercourse with the Executive Head of the Government, tend to give 
the tribes better views of its character and influence ? 

113. Can the Tribal Rights of the Indians be better Protected, and the Tribe be Incited 
to Higher Efforts in Civilization ? — Are the game, and wood and timber of the tribes subject to 
unnecessary or injurious curtailment or trespass from the intrusion of emigrating bands abiding for long periods 
on their territories? Are there complaints of any such trespasses? 

114. Their Ultimate Independence. — Are any of the tribes in your district sufficiently advanced to 
have their funds paid to a treasurer of the tribe, to be kept by him, and disbursed agreeably to the laws of 
their local legislature ? 


115. Questions still bearing on the Less Advanced Tribes. —Are payments of annuities to 
chiefs, or to separate heads of families, most beneficial ? Should the principal of an Indian fund be paid in 
annuities to Indians at the present period, under any circumstances; and, if so, under what circumstances ? Are 
members of the tribe generally capable of the wise or prudent application of money ? 

NEW INDIAN GOVERNMENTS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI 

116. What are the Distinctive Principles of the Governments Assumed, of Late Years 

BY THE MORE ADVANCED OF THE SeMI-CIVILIZED TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI ?— How is the 



APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


539 


eleeth e franchise expressed and guarded ? In giving a vote, are there any qualifications required by their laws 
as to property, the rendition of prior public services, or any prescribed condition of the voter arising from other 
pre-determined general causes ? W hat individual rights are surrendered, in these schemes of government, to the 
central or governing power, as a boon or equivalent for the general security of life, liberty, and property ? 

117. How DO THESE NASCENT GOVERNMENTS PRACTICALLY WORK, AND WHAT HAS BEEN THEIR 
Progress ? — Have original defects been remedied by adapting them more exactly to the genius and character 
of the people than they were, apparently, in the first rough drafts? What has been the progress in establishing 
a judiciary, and in the development of their national resources by wise and well-guarded laws? 

118. What is the Present State and Future Prospects op these Governments? _Have the 

legislative assemblies adopted a practical system of laws for the enforcement of public order, the trial of public 
offences, the collection of debts, the raising of revenue, the erection of public buildings and ferries, school-houses 
and churches, or the promotion of education, the support of Christianity, and the general advancement of virtue, 
temperance, and the public welfare ? Has this new phasis of these ancient communities had the effect to 
amalgamate the ancient clanships and sectional divisions, so far as these were founded thereon, or to obliterate 
them, together with their traditions — to dispel superstition, and ameliorate, in any marked degree, the condition 
of society in its humbler walks, and throughout the general mass ? State the present condition of the tribes 
which have established these governments, the difficulties yet to be surmounted, and the probable progress 
which they may be expected to make. 


PROPERTY. 

119. What Ideas have the Indians op Property? — How do they believe private rights accrued? 
Have they any true views of the legal idea of property ? Are they capable of clear and exact considerations of this 
character ? In what manner do they suppose that property in things was first acquired by man ? If possession 
gave this right, did the right continue, as long as the possessor was able to defend it ? If the starting and 
pursuit of a deer gave a man a right to it, was this right affected by another’s killing it ? Did building a 
wigwam, or planting corn on a vacant, or distant part, of another tribes’ territory, make the land his? And if so, 
how many years must it be held undisputed, to make the right valid ? An Indian of the Eritish dominions applied 
to an Indian Agent of the United States some years ago, for the allowance and payment by the United States of 
a private debt contracted in, and by a North Briton, resident in Hudson’s Bay. How did the mind operate in 
this case, and how does it operate generally, in tracing the claim of right and title in property, and of obligation 
in the affairs of debtor and creditor ? Endeavor to trace the process of individuality in rights and property. 

120. How did Title originally accrue to Territory? — Was the right of a nation to the tract of 
country originally possessed by it, acquired by its occupancy of it by them, to the exclusion of all others ? Did 
the Great Spirit make a gift of it to them, and why to them alone ? If he gave to each tribe a portion of the 
country, and thus parcelled out the whole continent, and gave them, at the same time, a right to defend it, who 
gave one nation a right to invade the territories of another, for the purpose of dispossessing them ? How can 
they justify this? If the Indians have no clear or fixed views on the subject, it will be sufficient to state the 
fact; if they, on the contrary, evince exactitude, pursue it, and illustrate the topic. 

121. Are there any Traces of the Law of Primogeniture? — Is the descent of property fixed? 
Is the eldest son entitled to any greater rights, or larger share of property, than the other children ? Does 
a parent express his will, or wishes, before death, as a descendant of Uncas did, how his property should be 
disposed of? Does a chief designate which of his children is to wear his medal; or is there ever made a legacy 
of a choice gun, an ornamented tomahawk, or other article ? State the general usage of parents, and of chiefs, 
on this head. 

122. What are the Obligations felt by the Indians to pay Debts? — Does time greatly 
diminish, in their view, these obligations, and how ? Does the Indian fancy that ill luck in hunting, is a 
dispensation from the Great Spirit, and that he is exonerated thereby from the obligation ? Are the Indians 


540 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


prone to sink individuality in tlieir debts, after a time, into nationality, and to seek to provide for them in that 
manner? Is the tribe punctual in the payment of their debts, and what is their general character on this 
subject? Do they set a high value on real property, exacting for it its real worth, or do they part with it 
readily, and for small and inadequate sums? Do they ever make more than one conveyance of such property, 
and are the questions of decision arising therefrom often complex and difficult? 


CRIME. 

123. What constitutes Crime? — Has man a right to take his fellow’s blood? Is the taking of life an 
offence to the individual murdered, or to the Great Spirit who gave him his life ? In the estimation of the 
Indians, did the Great Spirit, in forming the world and placing mankind upon it, give all an equal right to life; 
and if so, was not murder, from the beginning, a very great crime ? If a crime, can the spirit of a hunter or a 
warrior, in their view, go to the Indian paradise, without satisfying the justice of the Great Spirit ? How can 
this be done ? Does the law of retaliation (vide 89) please or satisfy the Great Spirit ? Can one, or two, or 
three murders expiate the crime of an original murder ? Do they not make the offence to the Great Spirit the 
greater ? State the common notions of the Indians on this point, and endeavor to learn whether they believe at 
all in punishments after death. 

124. Can the Deity be offended? — Is a man under high obligations, by the fact of his creation, to 
worship the Great Spirit ? And if he is, and yet he do not worship him, has he thereby committed a crime ? 
What crime ? Will the Great Spirit remember it, and how is it to be expiated ? 

125. Why is Falsehood a Moral Offence? — Is it because the Great Spirit abhors it, or because 
injuries may result to man? If the Great Spirit abhors a lie, how can he excuse it? Has he not a character 
to reward truth, and to punish falsehood ? 

126. Is the Want of Veneration in the Indians a Crime? — Are greater veneration and respect 
paid to parents than to brothers and sisters ? Is an Indian priest, or a chief, more venerated than a common 
man? Is age, under any circumstances, the object of veneration? Is it a crime to strike a parent, as it was in 
the Jewish tribes? Is there any known instance of such an offence? Is it punishable, and how? Did the 
Indians ever kill by stoning a person ? 

127. What can the Sages and Wise Men of the Tribe say in Defence of the Indian Code, 
doing LIKE for like? — If a bad deed is returned for a bad deed, is the Great Spirit pleased, or satisfied 
thereby ? Try to arouse a moral sensitiveness on this point, in order to bring out their reasons, if any they have, 
for crimes against humanity, good neighborhood, property, chastity, &c. 


RELIGION. 

128. Do THEY BELIEVE THAT THERE IS A DEITY PERVADING THE UNIVERSE, WHO IS THE MAKER 
of all Things ? — What ideas do they possess of the Great Spirit? Is he believed to be self-existent, eternal, 
omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent, and invisible ? When the Great Spirit made the earth, and furnished it 
with animals and men, did he, according to their traditions, give man power over the animal creation, and did 
he, by any messenger or angel, or priest, give to man any definite rights, message or moral rules or laws, to be 
kept ? If so, what rules of life did he give ? Do they believe that they are responsible, to keep these laws or 
rules, and if so, why ? 

129. Is the Great Spirit, or Deity, revealed in the Physical Character of the earth? — 
How does he manifest his presence on the earth, or in the sky ? In what forms is he recognised ? Is thunder 
considered his voice ? Are storms regarded as his acts ? Are cataracts evidences of his power ? 

130. What are the Moral Principles of his Government, and how are these Principles 
made known to them ? — Is death the act of the Great Spirit ? Do war and peace happen according to his 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


541 


will ? Is he the author of evil in the world, and what object did he, in their opinion, purpose to accomplish 
thereby ? Do they believe, with the Wyandots, that the Great Spirit created two great personages, subordinate 
to himself, with general powers in the world, called Good and Evil, and set them in perpetual opposition ? * 
Have these prime spirits, lesser spirits of benign or malignant character, who are subject, respectively, to them ? 
Did the Great Spirit create the great Evil Spirit, as he is generally called, and make him subject to himself, or is 
this malignant spirit, so universally feared by the Indians, of an independent nature, and may he be worshipped ? 
If he is not independent in his existence and attributes, how do they expect to escape the displeasure of the Great 
Spirit, for offering sacrifices and worship to so evil a being ? Do they indeed worship the Evil Spirit ? Is not 
taking another person’s goods, or denying the truth, or doing any act of wrong or unkindness between man and 
man, displeasing to the Great Spirit ? And a proof of obeying the voice of his evil adversary ? How do they 
excuse this ? 

131. How are they excused for Offences against the Great Spirit? — Is there any provision, 
in their religious system, by the intervention of their priests, or sacrifices, or fasts, or in any way whatever, by 
which cases of disrespect, or neglect of the Great Spirit, can, in their belief, be excused or pardoned ? Are 
hunger, cold, or human sufferings of any kind, satisfactory and acceptable, as some of them believe, for offences 
against the Deity ? 

132. Are the Indian Sacrifices Compensations for Evil Deeds? — Have they any idea whatever 
of an atonement, or a belief or expectation that some great personage was to come on earth, and answer for them, 
to the Great Spirit; and if not, is such an idea readily explained, and made reasonable to them? What do the 
missionaries report on this subject? Can they discern in their rites, or mythology, any name, or feature, having 
allusion to the atonement, and thus denoting their connection with nations of the Shemitic stock, who embraced 
this idea prior or subsequent to the opening of the Christian era ? Do they sacrifice .animals to appease the 
justice, or to acknowledge the goodness of the Great Spirit ? Did they or their ancestors ever offer human 
sacrifices, as it is known that the Aztecs of Mexico did? Were prisoners — who were burned at the stake by 
the North American Indians — offered only to satisfy the spirit of vengeance, or to gratify the thirst of warlike 
glory? Is it certain that there was no religious rite, or feeling, mingled with these barbarities? What is the 
latest period of such practices ? Are not sacrifices of female prisoners now made by the Pawnees, and some of 
the Upper Missouri tribes, to a divinity analogous to Ceres, or the supposed goddess of corn ? 

133. What is the Moral Character of the Indian Priestdood? Are they virtuous, sober, 
truthful, or ascetic ? Do they bear any badge of their office ? How many different classes of priests, or prophets, 
are there in the tribe? What are their names, and in what manner and with what ceremonies do they exeicise 
their several powers ? Are these priests hereditary, or may any person assume the functions ? Are the offices 
confined to males, or may they be assumed by females? Do they affect to reveal future events; to diiect wheic 
lost articles may be found; to bring down a blessing, or invoke a curse from the Great Spirit? Ha\c the tribe, 
or the pagan or unconverted portions of it, general confidence in their power ? When an Indian dies, does an 
Indian priest attend his sick bed, or his funeral? .For what purpose does he attend? Mhat office, or functions 
does he perform ? Does he make an address, or anything resembling a prayer ? If the man dies, who draws the 
devices on his grave-post? Give specimens of such devices or inscriptions, if in your power, with their inteipre 
tation. What, in the Algonquin tribes, is a Jossakeed, a Meda, and a Wabeno? 

134. What General Beliefs and Superstitions prevail? —Are there some points m which all 
agree? Do they believe in angels, or special messengers of the Great Spirit? Aie guardian spiiits supposed 
to have the power of shielding individuals from the power of evil? Is there a supposed class of spiiits, oi 
agents, who can assume the forms of animals or men, and who have the power of thwaiting t e wi o t e 
Great Spirit ? Does the evil spirit thwart his will ? 

135. Necromancers and Sorcerers. —Have they a class of persons, who affect to wield the power of 
necromancy or sorcery ? Do they affect to remove diseases, or to inflict them? Do they beheve in witchcraft. 


* This, it will be recollected, was the belief of Zoroaster and his followers. 







542 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


Are witches and wizards supposed to have the power of transforming themselves into other shapes ? What is 
the theory on this subject ? Do witches or wizards invariably exercise their powers for evil and not for good 
purposes ? Have persons accused of those acts been burned ? When were the last executions for this offence 
made? Did Tecumthe avail himself of this superstition to remove rivals from the Indian nations; did he 
condemn the noted chief Tarhe ? 

/ 

136. Various Beliefs, Partly of Oriental, and Partly of Western Origin. — Do they 
believe in vampyres or in premonitions from the dead, or in the theory of ghosts ? Do they trust in charms and 
amulets ? What is the Indian theory of dreams ? Are dreams regarded as revelations of the divine will ? Do 
they exercise much influence over the practical affairs of the Indian life ? Are good dreams courted under the 
influence of abstinence ? Are guardian spirits selected under the like influences ? Are they prone to regard 
themselves as doomed, or spell-cast ? Are they easily alarmed by omens ? 

137. What is the Actual Character of their Worship when closely Analyzed? — What 
species or degree of worship do they, in fine, render to the Great Spirit? Do they praise him, in hymns, 
chants, or chorusses ? Do they pray to him, and if so, for what purpose ? Is it for success in hunting, war, or 
any other avocation of life ? Give, if you can, a specimen of their prayers. 

138. Rites of Pasting and Feasting. — Do they fast that they may acquire mental purity, or 
cleanliness to commune with him ? Are the general feasts at the coming in of the new corn, and at the 
commencement of the general fall hunts, of a religious character ? Are these feasts of the nature of thanks¬ 
givings ? Are any of the chorusses, or songs of the priests, sacred, or of hieratic character ? Is the flesh of 
the bear, or dog, which is sacrificed, used to propitiate his favor ? Is it true, that all the flesh, bones, and the 
“purtenance” of the animals sacrificed in the feast, must be eaten, or burned, as in.the institution of the paschal 
supper ? 

139. Sacred Character of Tobacco. — Are the leaves of the tobacco plant, which are cast on the waters 
or burned in the pipe, offered as sacrifices to the Great Spirit ? 

140. Have you observed any Traces of the Ghebir Worship, or the Idea of an Eternal 
Fire ? — It is seen in their pictorial scrolls of bark, that they draw the figure of the sun to represent the Great 
Spirit. Is the sun the common symbol of the Great Spirit ? Do they now, or did their ancestors, worship him, 
through this symbol ? It is stated by General Cass, after visiting the Indian tribes in the north-west, in 1820, 
that there formerly existed an order of men, whose duty it was to keep alive an “ eternal fire.” Is there 
anything of this nature now existing, or known in the traditions of the tribes best known to you ? The French 
described the Natchez as sun-worshippers. State the traditions and existing opinions of the Indians on this topic. 

141. What are the Notions of the Tribe on the Nature and Substance of Fire, or 
Caloric ? — Is fire obtained from the flint, or from percussion, deemed more sacred than from other sources ? 
Is this the reason why councils are opened for public business, among the far tribes, with fire thus obtained ? Is 
there in this custom of burning tobacco with fire so obtained, accompanied by gesticulations to the Great Spirit, 
any vestige or evidence of the ancient prevalence of fire-worship among the North American tribes ? Are there 
any other evidences of the estimation of fire known to you, which denote the former prevalence of such worship, 
in the latitudes of this continent north of the ancient Aztec empire of Mexico ? 

142. Idea of a Holy Fire. — Did the Indian priests, at former periods, annually, or at any set time, 
direct the fire to be extinguished in the Indian lodges, and ashes cast about to desecrate them, that they might 
furnish the people new and sacred fire to re-light them ? 

143. What Notions have they of the Planetary System? — In speaking of the moon, as some 
of the tribes have, as being the consort of the sun, do they regard it as the shadow or effusion of the sun, or as 
deriving its light therefrom ? Are the stars or planets regarded as parts of a system ? Are they supposed to be 
occupied by the souls of men ? State their ideas of the planets, generally, in connection with number 47. 


APPENDIX — INQUIRIES. 


543 


144. How do Signs Affect Them? — Ho omens and prognostications exercise a strong sway over the 
Indian mind ? Do they ever influence councils in their deliberations, or war-parties on their march ? Are 
predictions, drawn from the flight of birds, much relied on ? Are auguries ever drawn from the sombre 
hue, shape or motions of the clouds ? 

145. Is there Reason to Believe the Indians to be Idolators ? — Are images of wood or stone 
ever worshipped ? or is there any gross and palpable form of idolatry in the existing tribes, similar to that 
of the oriental world ? What superstition or purpose is denoted by setting up water-worn-stones, or boulders, 
resembling images, on the shores of the rivers and lakes ? What objects are enclosed in the arcanum of 
the medicine-sack ? Has this sack, or secret depository of sacred things, any of the characters of “ an ark,” 
which have been attributed to it by writers ? What deductions are to be drawn from idols which have 
been discovered ? 

146. Immortality. — Do they believe in the immortality of the soul, and the doctrine of moral account¬ 
ability to the Creator ? Do they believe in the resurrection of the body ? A conception has appeared in 
the traditions of the Chippewa tribe, of the existence of duplicate souls, as if there were one soul of the body 
and another of the mind. Are there any traces of such a belief of the tribe, whose customs you are acquainted 
with ? Do they believe, at all, in the doctrine of rewards and punishments in a future state ? Do they 
represent the future and unknown state, as, in fact, a phantasmagoria, or shadowy image of the present world — 
its topography, and its productions and enjoyments ? Is the crossing of a deep stream, in the fancied journey 
of the soul to the land of bliss, as believed by some of the Algonquin tribes, an allegorical representation 
of future punishments for acts done in this life ? Is this a partial or general belief? 

147. Wiiat is the Common Notion of the Indian Paradise? — Do the virtuous and the vicious 

alike, expect to enjoy its fruitions ? By taking the idea of evil, suffering, or punishment from its precincts 
of expected bliss, do the Indians not reproduce, on the western continent, the exact counterpart of the 
Mahomedan or oriental paradise ? Are there any deaths in the Indian paradise ? Or is it a final state ? 44 ill 

there be any giants or enchanters there ? Will there be any wars ? 

* 

148. Is THERE NOT A PERVERSION OF TnE DOCTRINE OF IMMORTALITY RESPECTING THE BRUTE 
Creation ? — Do the Indians believe in the resurrection of animals ? Do they believe that the 
Great Spirit has given the brute creation souls and reasoning powers, as well as man ? An Indian, in 1820, 
begged pardon of a bear, whom he had shot on the shores of Lake Superior. Did this imply that he was 
to encounter him, as an immortal being, in another life ? 

149. What Peculiar Societies characterize Indian Life? — Are these societies bound by the 
obligation of secrecy ? What secret rites exist ? Do they partake of a religious, festive, or other character ? 
What knowledge do they profess to cultivate ? Among the tribes of Algonquin origin, there are separate insti¬ 
tutions or fraternities, called the Wabeno and the Medawin societies. Is there any extension of these societies, 
or are there similar fraternities in the tribes you are conversant with ? If so, describe them, with their origin 
and rites, the ties which bind them together, and the object of each, and the influence it exerts. Is the know¬ 
ledge and practice of medicine confined to the members or professors of these societies ? Are they, in any 
marked manner, the depositories of the traditions of the tribe, or of any department of aboriginal knowledge ? 
Are the members of these societies, more than the uninitiated, skilled in the art of drawing devices, or in 
the keeping of their mnemonic songs ? An opinion was expressed by the late Governor De 44 itt Clinton, that 
there was, among the Iroquois, some ancient tie, or sign of fraternity and recognition, resembling the Masonic 
tie. Is there any sign or evidence of such a rite observable in the customs of the tribe known to you ? 


MYTHOLOGY. 

150. What Peculiar Myths have the Tribe? — Do they believe that the great spirit of evil man¬ 
ifests himself on the earth, in the form of the serpent? Are the rattlesnake, and other venomous species, 


544 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


more than others, invested with fearful powers ? Do the priests sometimes put these into their drums ? Is the 
respect and veneration paid to serpents, the true cause of their lives being spared when encountered in the 
forest ? Do they offer tobacco to appease the spirit of the snake ? What theory does this imply ? Can the 
species send disease ? Can they charm, or enchant the warrior, so as to bewilder him in his path ? Did the 
great serpent, as he is represented in their mythological tales, produce the flood, which submerged the earth and 
drowned mankind ? Do the great Coatl of the South, and Kenabic of the North, typify an ark, or vessel 
of safety ? State the various mystical notions they have on this, to the Indian mind, important subject. 

151. Is the Belief in Metamorphosis general? — Do they believe that various quadrupeds, birds, 

or reptiles were transformed into men ? Does the doctrine, as held by them, reach to objects in the 

vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, or in the open heavens ? Were some of the stars once men ? Was Ursa 

Major a hear? Was the rainbow a snare, or net ? Were the thunderers once warriors renowned for their use 
of the arrow ? Was the zea maize or Indian corn originally a handsome young man, with plumes, who came 
from the skies ? Was the raccoon once a shell? Was the dormouse a mastodon ? Who exercised this power 
of enchantment, or transformation ? Were they magicians, or giants, or spirits of good or evil kind ? What 
was the era of their reign on the earth ? Will the doom of the transformed objects be terminated at death ? 
Will it be reversed, and visited upon the enchanters ? 

152. Do THEY BELIEVE IN THE PYTHAGOREAN DOCTRINE OF METEMPSYCHOSIS, OR THE TRANSMI¬ 

GRATION OF Souls ? — Are the changes of the souls of men into degraded and brute forms the awards of 
a just or unjust punishment? Were they the acts of malignant or good spirits? Are the souls of men 

sometimes sent into birds of the upper air, as a reward for their deeds, and their unjust or premature loss 

of life ? How are the souls of infants disposed of ? How many changes did the souls of Papukewiss undergo, 
in animals and birds, before he was merged into a rock, that he might withstand the bolts of the Great 
Thunderer ? 

153. What particular Animals stand high in their Mythology, and how does this Belief 
affect their Institutions? — Do the respect and honor which are paid to the turtle, wolf, and bear, and 
to the clans who bear these devices, (vide 77,) arise from the supposed importance of ancient heroes or valiant 
men, who fell under the necromantic power of evil spirits or wizards ? And what influence has this myth 
had on the original establishment of the Totemic system of the clans ? 

154. What fabled Gods, Demigods, Heroes and Viewless Spirits or Genii of the Air and 
Earth, have they embraced in their Oral Traditions? —Who were Inigorio and Inigohatatea? Are 
they allegorical representations of the Great Spirit’s will in the moral world ? What demigods, giants or heroes 
are denoted by the names Quetzalcoatl, Tarenyawago, and Manabozho ? What missions did they respectively 
execute ? Did they perform the labors or exploits of a Hercules, a Deucalion, or a Minerva ? Are these 
tiaditions but a western version of Vishnoo, Budha, or Siva? Or were these persons reformers in manners and 
arts, government, or religion ? Were they merely human or pseudo-divine ? Who were the stone giants 
of Indian tiadition ? TV hat calamity is prefigured by the fiery-flying heads? Who was Atahentsic? Who 
weie Atahocan and Chebiabo ? Who pierced the great elk at Itasca ? What gigantic animal was buried under 
the mountains ? TV ho were the giants Hobomok and Kluneolux ? What allegoric personages live in a cave 
under Niagara Falls ? Are there demigods who preside over the four cardinal points ? Why is the west wind 
called the father of the winds ? Who are the gods of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes ? Who does Nope 
personify ? 

155. What are the Names and Classes of their principal Local Deities, or Woodland 

Spirits, and what Analogy do they bear to the Mythological Creations of the Old World ? 

Is there a class of creations analogous to fairies ? Are there fairies of the water, as well as of the land ? Are 
the Indian puckwies visible or invisible ? Are they vicious or benign ? Do these creations delight to dwell in 
romantic retreats, or at picturesque points? Are there local spirits, or a kind of nymphs and dryads, who 
reside in caves or at cascades, or inhabit cliffs or mountains ? Do they protect or entrap travellers ? Do the 
natives believe in mermaids or mermans ? Is there any creation analogous to Comus, Ceres, Saturn, or Mor- 


545 


_ APPENDIX — INQUIRIES. 

pheus? Is death personified ? Have they a Hades, or land of shades? What Indian hero visited it? Are 
their creations of viewless kind and infinite stature, called Weengs, a species of gnomes? Can we recognize 
m the Indian idea of multiform spirits of a local character, the old Arabic notion of genii, or is this con¬ 
ception to be regarded as one of the original creations of the Red Race found here? 

loo. Ark the Indian Allegories, Fables and Lodge Stories, mentioned in Title V. fruitful 
in THE Revelation of their Mythological Notions? —Are such oral tales and relations common? 
Do they form a species of lodge-lore, which the young early learn? Are the relations confined to old, or 
privileged persons? Vide picture-writing, JYo. 245. 

157. Is Thunder personified ?— How many thunderers are there ? Are they located in different quarters 
of the heavens? What is their various character, and origin? 

158. Is the Indian Mythology very ancient? —What fabled monsters and dragons, with wings or 
horns, filled the antique epochs of the world; and who killed them, or how were the races extirpated? Has 
their system of mythology been affected by the introduction of Christianity ? Something of this kind is thought 
to be observable in examining the ancient picture-writings of the Aztecs, written after the conquest of Mexico, 
and it is important to guard against this intermixture of original and interfused notions. 


MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 

CONSTITUTION OF THE INDIAN FAMILY. 

159. Are the Ties of Consanguinity strong? — Are there terms for each degree of relationship, and 
"hat aie they for the different degrees ? Do these terms embrace all the collateral branches? Are the affinities 
of families and clans traced far back, and, as there are no surnames, by what means is the line of descent denoted 
and rendered certain ? Are the same names used for collateral relatives by the father’s as by the mother’s, 
side? Are the same terms used for elder and younger brother, and for elder and younger sister? Are the 
woids aunt and uncle by the mother’s side the same as aunt and uncle by the father’s side ? By what terms 
are the dead alluded to? State any peculiarities which may exist in the terms denoting kindred, age, or sex, or 
other particulars in the family names, which mark them, or distinguish the principles of speech in the family 
circle from those of other known nations ? 

160. Is the Family Association, or Married State, generally one of a Permanent Character, 
and promotive of Domestic Happiness? — Does the hunter state ensure abundance of food and clothing 
to the family? How is this state, in its domestic bearings, affected by polygamy, and what are the terms and 
relative affections of stepmothers and children ? Are wives well treated under the actual state of the hunter life ? 
Are they ever interfered with in the household affairs, and management of the domestic economy? Do they 
participate, in any degree, in the hunter’s vocation, or forest labors, and to what extent ? 

161. Are the Labors of Husband and Wife equally or unequally divided? — Is the labor 
and toil of hunting and supplying the family with meats a just equivalent, in point of time, for the cares and 
duties the wife bestows on the lodge, including its erection ? Does the public security of their hunting grounds, 
arising from councils and warlike expeditions, enter into the views of the wife, as constituting an acceptable part 
of the husband's duty? Who makes the arms and implements of war? Who makes canoes, paddles, cradles, 
bowls, and dishes? Who plants, and hoes, and gathers the fruits of the field? Who makes fish-nets, weaves 
mats, and cuts rushes and gathers wild rice ? Run through the entire class of forest labors, and draw a com¬ 
parison between the relative industry, or time, devoted by the husband and the wife. 

162. What are the Usual Causes of Family Jars in the Indian Lodge? — Are domestic 
discords common ? Is the loss of youth and youthful attractions in the wife a cause of neglect? Does barren¬ 
ness produce dissatisfaction ? Do children give their mother an additional power over her husband’s affections ? 

69 


546 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


Is jealousy a common cause of discord? In cases of a plurality of wives, does the eldest retain the precedence? 
Is the Indian character for comity, dignity, and forbearance, in the domestic circle, such as it has been generally 
represented ? Do the Indian women disclose a passion for dress, and is the failure to appropriate a part of tho 
hunt to this object among the causes of discord? 

163. How is Order preserved in the limited Precincts op the Lodge? — Casual observers 
would judge there was but little. Inquire into this subject, and state what are the characteristic traits of living 
in the wigwam, or Indian house. How do the parents and children divide the space at night ? How are wives, 
and females of every condition, protected in their respective places, and guarded from intrusion ? Is there a 
prescribed or fixed seat, or abbinos, as it is called, for each inmate ? Who fixes it ? On what occasion is it 
changed, or enlarged j and are the rules governing this subject such as at all times and seasons to secure the 
local lodge rights and privileges of every inmate? 

164. Sociality in the Lodge Circle. — Are the inmates taciturn and formal, or do they, when relieved 
from the presence of strangers, evince a general ease and spirit of sociality ? Is this observable particularly when 
on their wintering grounds in remote parts of the forest ? Do they eat at certain hours of the day ? How many 
meals do they take in the twenty-four hours ? Do they address the Great Spirit at any meal, or feast, by way 
of prayer ? Are their appetites regular or capricious, admitting of great powers both of abstinence and of 
repletion ? 

165. Characteristic Facts respecting Marriage. — Is there any tradition of the institution of 
marriage ? Has it the sanction of the Indian medas, or priests, or of the parents only? What are its ceremonies? 
Is the preparation of an abbinos in the mother-in-law’s tent, to receive the bride, a part of these ceremonies ? 
Is this act done with parade ? Are the mats, skins, clothing, and ornaments, appropriated to it, where the 
parties can afford it, rich and costly? 

166. Courtships. — How are these managed ? Are there regular visits to the lodge, or are the interviews 
casual ? Do young persons, of both sexes, adorn themselves, to become more attractive ? Do they use any 
peculiar paints or ornaments ? Do young men play near the lodge, on the pibbigwun, or Indian flute ? Are 
these chants appropriate ? Do they make presents to the object of their esteem ? Are presents made to the 
parents ? How is consent asked ? When are the parents consulted ? Are matches ever made without their 
consent ? 

167. Age and Condition op the Parties. — At what age do the Indians generally marry ? Are there 
bachelors, or persons who never marry ? Are there beaux, or young men addicted to dress ? Do widowers 
remarry, and is there any rule, or limit of propriety observed? Do young widows usually marry again? Are 
their chances of marriage affected by having previously had children? 

168. How does a Forest Life affect the Laws of Reproduction in the Species? —Does the full 
or scanty supply of subsistence govern it? Are the changes of location, fatigue, cold, and exposure to the 
vicissitudes of climate, felt in the general result of Indian population; and at what age do the women cease 
bearing? What is the highest number of children borne? What is the earliest known age of parturition? 
Are twins common? Is barrenness frequent? 

169. Visits and Visitors. — Are strangers announced before reaching the lodge, and how are visits 
ordered? Do parties of Indians stop, at a short distance, and send word of their intended visit? How are the 
ceremonies arranged, and how are guests received and entertained? Is precedence always awarded to guests? 
Are social visits made, in which these ceremonies are set aside? Is there anything analogous to dinner or 
supper parties, distinct from the stated feasts ? Are small cut sticks sent as invitations to guests ? Is hospitality 
a strong and general trait? Are its rites ever denied, or have they been known to be exercised to cover schemes 
of perfidy, or for base purposes ? 

170. Birth and Infancy. — Are there persons who exercise the office of midwives ? Are the labors 
of parturition severe ? Are separate lodges provided ? Arc arrangements made in anticipation ? Does any 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 547 

female friend attend as a nurse ? Are cases of solitary confinement rare ? Is there any rite analogous to 
circumcision ? 

171. Naming of Children. — Are there any ceremonies at the naming of children? By whom is the 
name given, and from what circumstance ? What number of days are suffered to elapse from the birth to the 
naming; is there any thing resembling the Hebraic period, or is it done at once? Does the father or mother 
bestow the name ? Is there any Indian priest present ? Are these names usually taken from the objects or 
incidents of dreams, which have impressed the minds of the sponsors, and are supposed to be sacred ? What 
are the usual names of males and females ? Give specimens. Are the children familiarly called by these 
names, as in civilized life, or are they kept secret ? If secret, what is the cause ? How do the children acquire 
nicknames ? Is this the cause of the multiplicity of names which are often borne by the same individuals ? 

172. Divorces. — Has the wife or husband the right of divorce ? Must there be good causes, and what are 
they generally ? Must the chief of the village be consulted ? What is the common practice ? Which party 
takes the children ? 

173. Nursing and Management of Children. — How are children nursed and attended ? What is the 
kind of cradle used — how is it constructed — is it well adapted to the purposes of the forest and the protection 
of the child from accident ? Is it suited to promote the natural growth and expansion of the limbs ? How 
do females become in-toed ? Are the feet of female infants bound by their mothers in this cradle in such 
manner as to turn in, and do they thus determine their growth ? At what age are children weaned ? How do 
children address their parents ? Do they abbreviate their words ? How do mothers address their infants and 
children ? Are there any terms of endearment ? 

174. Family Government of Children. — Is the domestic government left wholly to Indian mothers? 
Is it well exercised ? Is there any discrimination, in the discipline, between male and female children ? 

175. Instruction of Children in the Traditions of their Tribe. — How is the identity of their 
traditions kept up ? Are children initiated in the knowledge, or lore of their fathers, by the mother, in nursery 
tales, or are they left to pick it up, at later periods, from mingling in dances, congregations and feasts ? 
Do grandmothers exercise any influence in this department; or are there old persons who are privileged to collect 
evening groups iu the lodges, and amuse or instruct them by stories or traditions ? 

176. Stolen Children. — Are families often increased by the addition of white children, or youth who 
have been stolen in marauding excursions, in the frontier settlements ? State any known instances of this kind. 
Was the incorporation into the family in these cases complete, and were the persons reclaimed in after life ? 

177. Effects of Intemperance in the Family Circle. —What are the effects of the introduction and use 
of ardent spirits, in the lodge, in deranging its order? Does it lead to broils and scenes of intoxication? Does it 
diminish the means of the hunter to procure food and clothing ? Does it impair his capacity of hunting ? 
Does it injure his health ? Does it affect his reputation ? Does it deprive his wife and children of necessary 
comforts ? Do its excesses lead the victim, in the end, to want, to the murder of friends, killed in states 
of inebriation, and finally, to his own premature death ? 

178. What means are taken to Preserve the Family Identity? —If the clan-marks or totems 
denote affinity, is it not rather the evidence of a general and not a near family connexion ? 


CUSTOMS AND EMPLOYMENTS AT LARGE. 

179. Has there been a Declension of the Tribes in the United States from any former 
probable Condition, and what is the Type and Character of the Hunter State, as it exists 
AMONGST THESE Tribes? —Are any of the tribes quite degraded in the scale of being. Have ley 
degenerated into any customs or practices revolting to humanity? Do they eat human flesh, upon any 
occasion, and if so, under what circumstances? 


548 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


180. Traces op Foreign Customs. — Is there any proof of the existence of infanticide among the 
American Indians? Are the lives of female children held in less esteem than those of males? Are widows 
ever doomed to death on the decease of their husbands? Is there any tradition that they were ever burned, on 
such occasions, as upon a funeral pyre ? Are devotees to religion ever known to sacrifice themselves to their 
gods, as is done in the East ? Do they ever suspend themselves on hooks of iron, with the view of enduring 
meritorious sufferings? Do they wear particular spots on their foreheads to denote religious sects? Are there 
any castes among the North American tribes, or any vestiges of such an institution, or belief? Are any of the 
American waters, or great rivers, deemed sacred, and coveted in death? 

181. Practice of Scalping. — Do they, in scalping persons slain in battle, use any ceremonies, or adopt 
any practices which are of oriental character ? Is the scalp-lock, which it is customary to cultivate, a usage of 
ancient origin; and is there any peculiar mode of tracing antiquity in its form and position ? 

182. Traces of the Patriarchal Age. — Is the patriarchal feature strongly marked, in the Indian 
institutions ? Note whether there be anything in their manners, customs, or opinions, resembling ancient nations 
of the eastern world. Observe, particularly, whether there be any customs respecting the sacrifice of animals, 
or the withdrawal of females, or any other well-known ancient trait, in which the Indian tribes coincide. 

183. Asseverations. — Do the Indians swear, or use any form of oath ? Is the Great Spirit ever appealed 
to by name, or is the name carefully suppressed, or some other substituted for it? 

184. Forms of Greeting. —What is the Indian mode of salutation? Have they any conventional terms 
for it? Do they shake hands? If so, is this an ancient custom, or is it done in imitation of Europeans? Do 
they greet each other by name ? Did the Indians anciently rub or fold their arms together, as was witnessed, 
on the first meeting of the northern tribes with Cartier in the St. Lawrence, A. D. 1535 ? 

185. Habit of Smoking. — Is smoking a very ancient custom? Was there a time when their ancestors 
did not smoke? Did they bring the habit from abroad? Was the tobacco-plant given to them by the Great 
Spirit? How and when? State the tale. Was the gift made in the North, or did they bring the plant from 
the southern latitudes ? If this plant will not grow, and come to perfection so as to bear seed, in high northern 
latitudes, is this not a proof that their general migration was from the southern or central latitudes ? 

186. Approbativeness. — Is this strongly developed in the Indian mind; and what forms of exhibition 
does it assume in the manners and customs ? Is the war-path pursued as the chief avenue to fame ? Are 
hunting, and oratory pursued with the same ultimate ends? Are there any other modes in which an ambitious 
chieftain can gratify the passion? 

187. Habits of Thought. — Is stoicism of feeling deemed a mark of manliness by the Indians? To what 
extent is the countenance a true exponent of the actual state of feeling? Does taciturnity proceed from a sense of 
caution, or is the mere act of silence deemed wisdom ? What general theories of thought govern the manners 
of the sachems, and to what extent and in what manner are the maxims of conversation and of public speaking 
taught to the young ? 

188. Quickness of Sight and Acuteness of Observation in threading the Wilderness._ 

These have excited general notice, but the subject is still a matter of curiosity and further information. How 
are they guided when there is neither sun by day or moon by night ? How is the precise time of the desertion 
of an encampment, and the composition and character of the party, determined ? What are the elements of 
precision in this knowledge, so far as they are to be found in the plants, or forest, or in the heavens ? Is there 
extreme acuteness of the senses, and a nervous power of appreciating the nearness, or relative position of objects ? 

189. Credulity and Susceptibility of being Deceived. — Are the Indians very prone to be deceived 
by professed dreamers, or the tricks of jugglers, or by phenomena of nature, of the principles and causes of which 
they are ignorant ? Is not the surrounding air and forest, converted, to some extent, by this state of ignorance 


549 


APPENDIX — INQUIRIES. 

of natural laws, into a field of mystery, which often fills their minds with needless alarms? Are their priests 
shrewd enough to avail themselves of this credulity, either by observing this general defect of character, or by 
penetrating into the true causes of the phenomena? Do the fears and credulity of the Indians generally nourish 
habits of suspicion ? Do they tend to form a character for concealment and cunning ? 

190. How do their Physical Powers compare with the Strength op Europeans? — How 
many pounds can they lift ? What are their comparative powers in running, or in rowing a boat ? Are they 
expert and vigorous in handling the axe, or the scythe ? What is the greatest burden which you have known an 
Indian to carry ? 


HUNTING. 

191. Wiiat are the Principles of the Art of Hunting, as practised by the Tribe? _How 

does the chase vary, during the several seasons—what species of animals are chiefly sought in each, and what 
ceremonies take place on setting out, and on returning? Are there different modes of hunting different species 
of animals ? What is the mode of hunting buffalo ? How is still hunting performed ? Sketch the various 
modes. 

192. Social Ties and Secret Arts of the Chase. — In what manner do they form hunting parties, 
and what social ties unite them ? How are the spoils generally divided ? How are disputes respecting the 
division of game settled? * Are there any secret arts ? If so, what are they — who teaches them ? Are they 
paid for ? What hours of the day are most suitable for hunting? How is the glare of light managed in hunting 
up a valley ? Do they keep in the shade ? 

193. Decoys and Traps. — How arc bears and wolves decoyed into falls and traps? How is the antelope 
approached ? How are beaver trapped ? Are aromatic baits used ? State briefly the arts used by the Indians 
in deceiving the various species of game by light, by sound, by smell and color, or by cunning appeals to any of 
their senses. 

194. Mode of Drying and Curing Skins. — This is a very important branch of the hunter’s art, and it 
would be interesting to know the process, the various methods, and the amount of labor and time required. 
How are they packed and prepared for market ? What are the indications of skins killed out of season, and 
how are pelts judged ? 

195. How many Modes have they of taking Fish? — Are fish taken in wiers and fish dams? Are 
they scooped up in nets at the foot of falls and cascades? State the manner of each method, and any other 
ingenious mode practised, and whether there is any mode of curing or salting practised at their fisheries. 

196. Are the Arts of Hunting taught the Children at an Early Age? —Do they commence 
with archery ? And at what ages are the boys generally competent to engage in the active labors of the chase ? 
Can widows rely early on their sons for the means of subsistence ? Do they ever, during the infancy of them, 
practise any part of the hunter’s art themselves, and if so, what part? Have women, thus left alone, or deserted, 
ever been known to practise the use of fire-arms ? 

197. Wiiat is the Present State of the Arms and Implements used by the Hunters of 
the Tribe ? — Have they abandoned the bow and arrows, partially or altogether ? Do they use the gun or 
rifle, in hunting deer or buffalo? Are they well supplied with ammunition, and at reasonable rates ? Can they 
readily command steel-traps, and other metallic implements? Facts of this character are essential in determining 
their condition, and ability to maintain themselves by the labors of the chase. In cases where tribes have 
advanced to the agricultural state, that fact alone will be sufficient to be stated, and will supersede any notices 
of this kind. The laws of the chase, and the civil power of chiefs have been referred to in prior inquiries on the 
organization and government of the tribe. 


* Vide, 91, 92, 93 and 94, for generic inquiries on the power of the chiefs on this subject. 



550 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


WAR. 

198. How are War Parties Raised, Subsisted and Marched ? — Is there any thing in the Indian 
customs equivalent to enlistment ? If joining the war-dance be thus construed, for what period is the enlistment 
or assent good, and how and when may its obligations be terminated or broken ? Can a warrior be punished for 
turning hack ? Must he furnish his own provisions? Is there any public arrangement, whatever, in an Indian 
war, for arms, subsistence, or transportation ? 

199. Order of March and Precautions. — Do men set out for a designated rendezvous, singly, or in 
what manner ? Are there any ceremonies observed before marching ? How is the march of the party 
conducted after they are assembled ? Do they move in a body, or separately in files or sub-parties ? Do they 
eat any root, or substance which is supposed to have the virtue of deadening pain, or inspiring courage ? What 
precautions are observed on the march, and in their encampments — are sentinels ever posted ? Are the priests 
or jugglers consulted ? What signs or omens are noticed ? How do these affect them ? 

/ 

200. Subordination. — To what extent do the chiefs exercise the duties and rights of officers ? Is subor¬ 
dination observed ? Have they any right to punish its infraction ? Do they command in battle ? How are orders 
conveyed ? Have they aids, or runners ? Are battles planned ? Are different chiefs assigned to different 
locations ? Do they fight in line ? Do they ever plan retreats, or appoint a rallying place in rear ? 

201. Stratagems. —What are the usual devices of attack, resorted to ? Are they always planned with a 
minute knowledge of the topography? What are the usual manoeuvres ? Is the war-whoop employed to order 
an advance, or retreat, or side movement ? When, and under what circumstances do they quit a masked wood, 
or defile, and take the open plain? 

202. Captives. — How are prisoners secured and treated ? Has any captive been burned at the stake, since 
the burning of Col. Crawford, or offered to appease the spirit of cannibalism, in modern times ? When their 
lives are spared, and it is designed to adopt them in families, what are the usual ceremonies ? Are men who 
are found wounded on the field of battle killed ? 

203. Is Personal Servitude Recognised? — Are there any persons, who, having lost their liberty, or 
forfeited their lives, are reduced to slavery, or placed in the relative position of peons, or menials, who are 
compelled to work, and carry burdens ? 

204. Treatment of Female Captives. — Is chastity uniformly respected in war ? Is there any known 
instance of its violation in the marauding parties ? Is this trait of character connected with any superstitious 
opinions ? 

205. Costume in War. — What constitutes the ordinary dress of warriors, on a war excursion ? What 
paints are used, and how are they applied to different parts of the person ? What feathers are worn on the head, 
as marks of former triumphs ? 

206. Head Dress. — Do they wear frontlets, and how are they constructed ? How is the hair dressed ? 
Is the head shaved to form the scalp-lock ? Are there necklaces of animals’ claws, or other ornaments; are there 
hack dresses ? Are there ornaments for the ears, or arms, legs, or feet ? Are any of these constructed so as to 
emit jingling sounds ? 

207. Arms and Implements of War. — How have these varied in the lapse of time? Are fire-arms 
substituted for the bow and arrow in war, as they are supposed to be, generally, (vide 197,) in hunting ? Are 
war-clubs, tomahawks and knives, employed ? How does the scalping-knife differ from the common Indian 
knife, if it differs in any respect ? 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


551 


DANCING AND AMUSEMENTS. 

208. Is Dancing a National Trait of the Tribe? — Is it confined to males? How many kinds of 
dances are there ? State the peculiarities of the various kinds of war-dances, and dances of honor, triumph, 
religion, or hunting ? Is dancing a characteristic mode of expressing popular feeling or opinion on all subjects, 
and of thus swaying or confirming the action of the tribe ? If females are excluded from the principal dances, 
are they admitted to the choral band of singers or musicians ? Are the principles of the various dances, and the 
choruses, taught to the youth; and at what age do the latter generally join in the ring ? 

209. Sports and Exercises. — Are there contests in racing and hall-playing ? How many kinds of games 
at ball have they ? Describe them, and the manner in which the contending parties are chosen, together with 
the rules of the games ? Are there trials of skill in wrestling ? Are there races at fixed times in which the 
youth may all engage ? Are the stakes high on these occasions, and of what do they consist ? Illustrate these 
amusements by reference to the effects which they have had on their history and manners. 

210. (Games of Chance. — How many kinds of games of chance exist ? Is the tribe much addicted to these 
games ? Describe them, with their rules, and the general effect of the gambling propensity, if any exist, on the 
tribe ? What are the arithmetical principles of the games of the bowl and the moccasin ? Is there a spirit of 
private gambling, and if so, are there any instances of its power of infatuation ? 

DEATH AND ITS INCIDENTS. 

211. Deaths and Funerals. — What are the characteristic facts connected with these subjects? When a 
person dies, how is the corpse dressed and disposed of? What length of time is it kept? Is it addressed, as if 
living, and capable of hearing, prior to its removal, or at the grave ? What is the character of these addresses ? 
What implements are buried with it, and of what material do they consist, and why are they deposited with the 
corpse ? Is this burial of utensils and relics an ancient custom, and if so, does not the examination of old 
sepulchres and places of burial, to compare these relics, afford a means of judging of the state of arts in the 
Indian tribes, at various eras ? 

212. Structure and Position of the Graves. — Are burials usually made in high and dry grounds ? 
Have you known any tumulus or barrow to he erected, in modern times, to the memory of a distinguished chief? 
Are the Indian graves usually well excavated and protected, and in what manner are these objects effected ? 

213. Position of the Corpse with regard to the Cardinal Points. — Are the bodies buried east and 
west, and if so, what reason is assigned for this custom ? Is it an ancient custom 1 Why are not bodies buried 
promiscuously, as to their position, and without respect to the cardinal points ? 

214. Standing or Sitting Posture. — Are bodies ever deposited in these positions, and if so, what 
is the mode of interment, and how is the posture preserved? 

215. Embalming. —Are there any herbs, or spices placed with the corpse? In it wrapped in barks, or 
cloth, or submitted to any process analogous to embalming? 

216. Scaffolding of Corpses. —To what extent, if any, is this custom practised in the tribe ? How are 
the bodies prepared for this purpose ? Are they inclosed in barks or put in boxes, previously to their being 
placed on the branches of trees, or on posts ? Are they subject to be depredated upon, in these cases, by beasts 
of prey or carnivorous birds ? 

217. Funereal Flags, or Ensigns of War. — Arc displays of this kind made over the graves of 
distinguished chiefs ? Is this a modern custom, or were the Indian feather flags formerly disposed of in 
this way? 


APPENDIX —IN QUIKIES. 


\ 


218. Collection and Re-interment of Bones. — It is observed in various places that such deposits 
were made. The custom, if ever known to the ancestors of the present race, is obsolete. Did they ever 
practise it, or is it due to a prior race? If practised, how was it done and with what ceremonies? Was it the 
duty of particular classes of men? What time was suffered to elapse before the bones were gathered? Was 
there, on these occasions, public funeral ceremonies, attended with wailing, and other demonstrations of grief? 

219. Charnel Houses. —The traditions of the tribes denote such depositories to have existed in ancient 
times. How were they constructed, and the bodies protected against depredations from wild beasts? 

220. Incineration of Bodies. — Is this ever practised ? Are there any traditions on the subject ? 

221. Mourning and Observances. — Do they scarify themselves for the dead ? What is the garb, or 
sign of mourning ? Are the dead lamented, and how ? Are visits periodically made to the graves ? Do widows 
ever carry, for a limited period, images or bundles of cloth, as symbols of mourning to represent their deceased 
husbands? Are long beards ever suffered to'grow in consequence? 

222. Funeral Fires. — Are fires ever kindled on newly made graves ? If so, at what times, how long are 
these fires continued, and what is the object of them ? 

223. Grave-Stones, or Monuments. — What species of monumental structures of this nature are usually 
erected? Are stones ever employed to mark the place of interment? If posts, or tablets of cedar or other 
species of wood, be placed at the head and foot of graves, are there any hieroglyphics, or devices put upon these 
fixtures, and what characters do they consist of, and how are these to be understood? For further inquiries on 
the devices generally, see “picture-writing,” No. 245. 

226. Is THERE ANY MOUND NOW IN THE PROCESS OF BUILDING IN THE TERRITORIES OF THE TRIBE, 
OR WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF THE UNITED STATES, PARTICULARLY ON ITS EXTREME SOUTHERN AND 
M estern Confines? — More than three millions of cubic feet of earth are estimated to be contained in one of 
the antique western mounds. Is there sufficient power and energy in the tribe, or any tribe known to you, to 
have executed such a labor ? Could such works have been erected by the labors of women alone ? Is there not 
denoted an energy and capacity of construction in the antique mounds, superior to any which is now possessed by 
the tribes? 


225. Treatment of Orphans. — On whom does the care of orphans devolve ? Does the chief of the tribe 
take any notice of children thus left, if there be no near relatives? 

226. The Poor and Aged. — Are aged and infirm persons ever abandoned ? Who takes care of old and 
feeble persons destitute of children or relatives, when they can no longer hunt, or attend to any forest labors or 
care, by which they might have contributed, in part, to their own support ? Do the chiefs direct food to be left ? 
Do the village hunters make voluntary contributions? When such persons die, who buries them? Philanthropy 
seeks to ascertain the bitter necessities of savage society, and any facts or incidents illustrating them, which 
may serve to guide public opinion, will be important. 

227. Lodges, or Dwellings. — What are the materials, form, size and mode of construction of their 
lodges ? If skins or bark be employed, what skins and what species of bark, and how prepared, and how long 
will the material last ? Are the tents, or lodges, easily removed from place to place, or are they of a permanent 
character, so as to be left standing during their periodical absences, and re-occupied ? How many persons will 
they generally accommodate ? Are they graduated in size accurately to the number of the family, and if so, how 
many square feet of ground-surface does each inmate occupy? Who constructs, removes, and re-erects them ? 

^--.8. Canoes, or Boats. Of what material are these made, how are they constructed, and what is their 
iisna capacity ? . If built of bark, are they ribbed with cedar, and built on a frame, and in what manner is the 

eat ing material attached, and closed, so as to be impervious to water ? If made from a solid log, how is it 
excavated, and what are its comparative properties in river navigation ? 


553 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 

229. Mechanical Aptitude oe the Tribe. - Are they disposed to advance from the barbaric type? 
It such advances have been made, what are they, and to what extent are mechanical tools of the most approved 
kinds employed? 

2o0. Mode of Cooking and Habits of the Table. — Is raw meat ever eaten ? Do they roast their 
meat done, or is it often the practice to cook it overdone ? Have they any peculiar skill in boiling fish ? Do 
they use much salt, or relish milk ? Do they ever, or have they in former times, followed the practice of boiling 
meat or vegetables in vessels of wood, or bark ? Do they use metallic cooking vessels, generally, at the present 
time, and if so, what kinds? Or are the ancient clay pots of the Indians still employed in remote positions? 
Have they any regular periods for meals? 

231. Method of Curing Meats. —In what forms is smoke applied in the drying and preservation of 
various kinds of meat, or provisions ? Do they employ salt in curing the tongues of the buffalo and the rein¬ 
deer? How is the flesh of the deer, the moose, and the buffalo preserved? What is the method of curing the 
tail of the beaver, and to what extent, and in what manner, are the various species of fish, referred to, in 195 
as taken in quantity, preserved? 

232. Spontaneous Fruits and Productions of the Forest. — To what extent do the purely hunter 
tribes rely on these ? Give a catalogue of them, denoting the various kinds of roots, truffles, berries and nuts 
relied on. Is the wild honey sought, and in what quantity is it afforded? Do they collect and boil the sap of 
the sugar maple, in its season, and to what extent does it form an element in the means of their subsistence ? 
Is the wild rice gathered in the interior lakes and rice grounds? 

233. Pinching Seasons of Necessity. —What species of barks are eaten on these occasions? Do they 
collect old bones, in times of great hunger, and extract their oily, or acrid juices by boiling ? Is the lichen 
called tripe de roche eaten, and how is it prepared ? The shifts and necessities to which the hunter tribes are 
driven in seasons of extreme severity, or want, are such as often to shock, while they create strong appeals to 
humanity; but the facts are required, to show the fallacy of perseverance in such a precarious mode of life. 


COSTUME. 

234. What is the ordinary Dress of the Tribe, Male and Female? — Of what materials is it 
composed — of what quality and color ? If any part of their garments be made of materials the growth or fabric 
of the Indian country, state the kind of stuff used, and in what manner it is prepared, and the places of its 
growth or manufacture. How long will such dresses, whether made of foreign or domestic material, last, and 
what is the actual value or cost of each, distinguishing male from female ? 

235. Adaptation of Dress to Seasons and Occasions. — The mode of dress and accoutrement for 
war is inquired into by No. 207. Are there any other peculiar adaptations of dress, to varying circumstances ? 
Are there summer and winter dresses ? Is there particular attention paid to robes designed for public occasions ? 
Is there any thing peculiar to distinguish a civil or war chief from a medicine man, or Indian priest ? Are the 
Indian dresses removed at night? If they be slept in, wholly or in part, what part is retained, and what 
put off? 

236. Ornaments. —Do they attach a peculiar value to ornaments? What kinds of ornaments are most 
desired ? In what shape is silver worn ? What species of the decorations of dresses are derived from birds, 
quadrupeds, and other animate objects ? Are shells still worn in their elementary forms, and what species ? Is 
a high value attached to the feathers of the war eagle ? What species of ornaments are furnished, at the present 
time, by the state of the fur trade? 

237. Dyes and Pigments. — Are there any native dye-stuffs, or roots or vegetables, employed in coloring 
parts of their clothing, or ornaments ? What are these dyes — how is the coloring principle extracted, and with 

70 


554 


APPENDIX—INQUIRIES. 


what mordant is it set ? Do they ever tattoo, prick or puncture their faces, breast and arms, and how ? Is 
vermilion still sold to them ? What kinds of colored clays and ochres, or native oxydes, are employed ? Are 
white or red clays ever smeared over the hands, and their impress marked on the body, or clothing ? 

288. Badges oe Office. — How many kinds have they, and of what material do they consist ? 

239. Physical Traits, as affected by Costume. — What are the customs and fashions of wearing the 
hair and heard ? Is the whole head shaved ? Have they any preparations for killing, eradicating or dyeing the 
hair ? Is the beard generally extirpated by the tweezers, or other mechanical means ? Are there exceptions to 
its growth or to the reigning customs ? 

240. Physiology, as bearing on Ethnography. — What is the geometrical and physical type of the 
Indian skin, as examined under a magnifier ? How many pores exist in a square inch, and what is the distinc¬ 
tive shape of them ? Note, also, the rugosas, shade of color, and other minute physiological traits. 


INTELLECTUAL CAPACITIES AND CHARACTER OE THE RACE. 

V 

241. Mental Powers. — What is the general scope and capacity of the Indian mind, as compared with 
other stocks of the human race ? Does it bear most resemblance to those of the Asiatic, or of the European 
group ? If it disclose traits more akin to the elder, or oriental stocks, in what do these traits consist ? Are 
their minds of an inductive cast ? Are they capable of pursuing logical trains of thought to a just conclusion ? 
Is this faculty observed to be brought out and strengthened by education ? Are they naturally possessed 
of strong powers of memory and forecast ? Are they of a reflective habit ? Do the moral propensities and 
affections generally predominate over the physical ? Are they of a grave, or light character ) a sober, or gay 
cast of mind; a fervid, or cold temperament ? 

242. Personal Instances. — Has there appeared, in their history, any individual noted for his natural or 
acquired powers as a physician, linguist or moralist, or any one who has evinced ability in the cultivation of any 
of the exact or moral sciences ? 


243. General Mode of the Exhibition of Thought.- —Have they any maxims which are used in 
conversation ? Do they repeat, in their families or at assemblages, any thing of the nature of studied composi¬ 
tions or laments ? Does the general state of their oral traditions, as traced in the scenes of private life, evince 
strong powers of- metaphor or allegory, or denote any dawning or vestiges of fancy or invention ? Inquire into 
this department with all the means you can ; more particularly in reference to the following topics : 


244. Oratory. — What are the general characteristics of Indian oratory ? How is metaphor managed ? Are 
t eir speeches as replete with figures and tropes as they are usually depicted in fictitious writings ? What traits 
m t e specimens of Indian eloquence which are known, are most remarkable ? Do the speakers excel in sim- 
p mty clearness, and strength of language? Do these specimens derive much of their force from the political 
attitude or important position of the speaker? Are there an, continued strains of eloquence, or sustained 
appeals. Give any authentic specimens known to you, among living orators. 

245. Art of Picture-Writing. -Allusion to this subject is made in Number 156. To what extent do 
the tribe practise this art ? Is it generally in the practice of drawing the figures of animals, birds, or other 
objects on trees pieces of bark, dressed skins, or other substances? What is the general purport of these 
pic ona eviccs . . s eir meaning fixed or exact? Is there any known system in the annotation ? Do they 
convey 1 erent m s o information to the tribe ? And how are the characters interpreted? Is there a system 
o gates and devices, which the people generally understand, and which the mass of the tribe can interpret and 

haveTeen left hvl T t0 th ® medicine - men or priests? Are devices and drawings which 

. . J 7 ™ mg partlcs at the scenes of th eir success, designed to inform others of the tribe, who may 

these scenes, of the names or clans of the successful hunters, and the number and kind of game taken ? Is 


555 


APPENDIX —IN QUIRIE S. 

information conveyed, by this system, to distant parts of the tribe, of travellers, strangers, or others, military or 
civilians, who have passed through their country, denoting their force and object ? What information is generally 
recorded by these simple inscriptions ? And what other forms does this pictorial art of the Indians take ? Can 
the medicine-men or medas record their songs by it? Describe the system, and give specimens of the drawings, 
noting the different kinds of pictorial inscription, the method of its interpretation, and its peculiar character and 
value to a people who are without letters. How does it compare with the Aztec system ? Is it largely applied 
to mythological subjects connected with their oral legends ? (Vide Number 247.) 

246. Invention op the Cherokee Syllabical Alphabet, or System op Notation. — What are the 
principles for recording thought, which are developed by this concrete alphabet ? Under what circumstances was 
it invented ? How many elementary and how many compound sounds or syllables does it provide for ? Is it 
applicable to recording the sounds of other Indian tongues besides the Cherokee ? Is the system it provides 
generally understood by the tribe, or much employed ? Are the Scriptures, which are printed and circulated iu 
this character, generally read in Cherokee families? Is it likely to be of permanent benefit or utility to the 
tribe, to whose language it appears exclusively adapted? 

247. Oral Imaginative Tales and Legends. — What can be stated on this topic? In examining 
their notions on the immortality of the soul, (numbers 146, 156,) the existence of such fables, or allegories, is 
alluded to. It is desirable to know how general they are. Are stories of giants and dwarfs, and wild adventures 
of men and genii among woods and forests, related for the amusement of the circle of listeners, around the 
evening fire-side ? Do these tales and oral sagas of the wigwam, reveal the actual notions of the tribe, on their 
religion and mythology, or their ideas of a future state ? 

248. Doctrines and Opinions Revealed in the shape op Allegory. — Arc these legends found 
to embody and exemplify their ideas of transformations necromancy and the power of sorcery ? Can we 
perceive, in these imaginative efforts, the true doctrines entertained of good and evil spirits, fairies, ghosts, 
or any other form of aboriginal story-craft ? Are any of these tales related to demonstrate to the young the 
power or ubiquity of the Great Spirit ? 

249. Oral Tales, a Vehicle op Instruction. — Do the allegories and fables ever convey moral 
instruction or history to the young ? Is there a frequent attempt in their lodge-stories to account for the origin 
of animals, and other objects of creation, animate or inanimate ? And do they thus shadow forth the true 
Indian philosophy of life ? Transmit some of these native tales, which may serve to give a general idea 
of their mental power and character, and the scope of imagination evolved. 

250. Music, Songs and Poetry. — What is the character of the Indian music, songs and poetry ? How 
many notes, or finger-holes, have they in their flute, or pibbegwun, and by what scale are they varied, and what 
analogy does this instrument bear to the ancient Arcadian pipe ? Are there different styles of music and songs 
for war, religion and love ? Are the chants accompanied by other instruments, and if so, what is the character 
of these instruments ? Is there more than one species of drum ? In what manner are the Indian drums made ? 
Is the rattle made in various ways, and how? What resemblance or connection have these instruments, in their 
mechanical structure, and the power of originating or modulating sound, to the ancient musical instruments 
of the Aztecs, or other nations of the tropics ? 

251. What is the General Character of the Indian Songs? —Is there any rhyme in them? 
Are the words collocated so as to observe the laws of quantity ? In other words, are they measured, or are the 
accents in them found to recur at fixed and regular intervals ? Has there appeared any Indian poet ? 

252. What are the Scrolls and Tablets which have been termed “Music Boards,” and 
“ Bark Songs ?” — Are these mnemonic records of songs executed in the manner of the Indian picture- 
writings, referred to in Number 245 ? If so, describe them, and indicate the mode of connection between the 
words and music, and the devices ? 

253. Indian Chorus. —Is the chorus a characteristic part of their songs and music? Are the Indian 
choruses more fixed than other parts of a song ? How many syllables do they consist of in a war-song, a religious 
song, and a hunting song ? Is the name of the Great Spirit, or the Deity, denoted in any of these choruses ? 


556 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


254. Laments for the Dead. — Is it the custom to call on certain persons to frame these laments ? Are 
the laments, themselves, of a poetic character ? Do they bewail virtues, or broken affections ? If laments are 
made by professed persons, who are skilled in the use of their language, are these persons, also, skilled in song¬ 
making and song-singing, generally ? 

255. What is the Character of the War-Song? —Do the strains recite former triumphs, or breathe 
defiance or boasting ? Do they evince patriotism and the love of military glory ? Do they consist of continuous 
verses or broken strains independently uttered ? Have they a particular chorus ? State, also, the character of 
the death-song. Do they recite their triumphs in hunting as well as in war ? 

256. Sacred Songs. — Are there hymns to the sun, or to the Great Spirit ? Do the prophets utter any 
secret incantations, which are supposed to partake of a sacred character ? 

257. Cradle Songs. — Does maternal affection find any expression in strains analogous to lullabies or cradle 
hymns ? Are there love songs ? Have you noticed any bacchanalian songs or catches ? The character of a 
people or race is eminently shown in their songs and recitals at their convivial and social assemblies, whether these 
be for the exercise of sports, dancing, singing, or any other forms of merry-making; and nothing can be more 
illustrative of the cast and temper of mind and thought of the Indian race, than well-authenticated specimens of 
their songs, music, and poetry. If there be any thing deserving of the name of painting or sculpture, it may 
also be appropriately mentioned and described under the present general head. 


PRESENT CONDITION, AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 

258. The Result thus far. — How far has knowledge, art, and commerce, and the general progress of 
civilization, affected the improvement of the Indians, and changed or modified their original manners, customs, 
and opinions ? State the general impressions which have been made, and observe what modes of treatment and 
policy have done best, and on what points the Indian character, in its advanced or semi-civilized phases, usually 
breaks down. 

259. Cross or Amalgamation of Races. — What are the prominent effects, physical and intellectual, of 
the intermixture, by marriage, between the European and Indian races ? Has the tribe been much affected by 
such intermarriages ? General facts, only, are sought. 

260. Ratio of Increase. —What is the present rate of progress of the population of the tribe, compared 
with former periods ? Are they advancing or receding ? How will it compare with the ratio from A. D. 1800 
to 1820, and from the latter to 1840 ? The census “ forms ” transmitted will show the existing population, but 
not its former state, nor the results that may be anticipated in the present location and circumstances of the tribe. 

261. Health of the Tribe. — How does the agricultural state, in the cases where it has been embraced, 
affect the laws of reproduction, and what change, if any, has been noticed in the character of the diseases of the 
removed tribes ? Is their general health better, and how, if to any extent, has it been influenced by full and 
regular means of subsistence ? Are fevers, or affections of the liver, as frequent on the elevated plains west of 
the Mississippi, as they were in their former positions ? How does the change of climate affect pulmonary 
complaints ? 

262. Costume and Cleanliness, a Test of Civilization. — What general changes have taken place 
in this regard in the tribe, and in their habits or practices of cleanliness, modes of living, and general house¬ 
wifery ? Details on this head are sought under Nos. 227 to 240; and nothing but the general results on the 
tribe, as an increment in their advance in the scale of civilization, is here required, 

268. Field Labor imposed on Females. — Is this test of the barbaric or hunter state still tolerated; 
and, if so, to what extent ? The condition of woman, as a laborer in the Indian community, has been asked for, 
No. 161. It is here wished to ascertain whether there be any whole tribes who have passed beyond this marked 
phasis. 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


557 


264. Progress of Christianity. — What is the present state of the tribe in this respect ? What progress 
has been made in delivering it from the dominion and influence of the native priests, prophets, and jugglers ? 
How long has it enjoyed the advantages of Christian teachers? What means were first employed to gain a 
hearing for the doctrines? Were they found efficacious, or were they varied, and what has been the most 
successful mode employed? 

265. Temperance. —Are the principles of temperance in the use of ardent spirits on the increase or 
decrease ? What are the prominent causes operating on the minds of persons yet addicted to the use of them, 
and what are the best means, at this time, of further discouraging the use of such drinks, and of effecting their 
entire exclusion from the tribe ? 

266. The Cause op Education. — What are the prominent facts in relation to this important means of 
reclaiming and exalting the tribe ? What means have been found most effective in the education of their 
children and youth? Have females duly participated in these means, and has any part of such means been 
applied to such branches as are essential to qualify them for the duties of mothers and housewives ? Are the 
ancient prejudices of parents on the subject of education on the wane, and what is the relative proportion of the 
young population who, in the last period of ten years, have received the elements of an English education ? 

267. State of the Mechanic Arts. —Forms have been prepared to bring out the existing state of facts 
in the tribe on this head, but they do not denote the prevalent state of feeling and opinion on the subject, nor 
the progress which has been made. It is known that the tribes rely greatly on white or hired mechanics, who 
are provided for by treaties, and paid by Government. Are they beginning to entertain true views on this head, 
and do they evince a desire to do their own mechanical labors ? In this connection it may be proper to inquire 
whether the native mechanics are capable of furnishing them their teams and wagons for draught and pleasure, 
and with chains, ploughs, and bars in the labors of agriculture, and horse furniture and gear, suited to a growing 
and thriving people ? 

268. Improved Modes of Agriculture. — Is there any interest observable on this head ? Are there 
rotations of crops ? Are there proper theories embraced in the application of manures ? Do they employ marl, 
lime, or gypsum, on portions of lands adapted to them ? Do the number increase who cultivate flax, hemp, 
tobacco, or cotton, in their respective latitudes ? Do they manifest a desire to obtain improved breeds of cattle, 
horses and sheep ? Is there a general desire to plant fruit trees ? Are the most approved kinds of agricultural 
implements used ? 

269. Means of Communication. — Have the tribe provided for the construction of roads, bridges, and 
ferries, either by an appropriation of their general funds, or by imposing the duty of personal service or tax, on 
the residents of the several districts ? 

270. The English Language a Means of Civilization. — To what extent is the English language 
spoken, and English books read, and what is the tendency of opinion and practice on this subject, in the tribe ? 
In giving replies to these queries, express your opinions freely, and state any fact, or mode of procedure which, 
in your judgment, would tend to advance the welfare or promote the happiness of the tribe. The general question 
of the advance and reclamation of the tribes, as connected with the present state of the Indian trade, has been 
examined in queries 95 to 105, inclusive. The bearings of these interrogatories on their future state, and the 
obligations imposed on the people and government of the Union, by their position in the scale of nations, are 
further called out in an examination of some points in the legislation of Congress respecting them in queries 106 
to 115; and the questions on the actual condition of the tribes who are more advanced, and have set up new 
governments on the territories assigned to them west of the Mississippi, 116 to 118, are designed to complete 
this view of the changes wrought in the position of the tribes, since their discovery, about A. D. 1600. It is 
important, as they advance, as many of them now do, in their means and population, and in the progiess of 
education and agriculture, that we should scrutinize the whole class of facts on which this advance depends, in 
order to give it the greater impetus and permanency. In this view, the subject is commended to your geneial 
reflection and scrutiny, in the following subjoined inquiries on their general history and languages. 


558 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


GENERAL HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 

271. Proofs from Tradition. —Who were the earliest inhabitants of America? What is the light of 
tradition on this subject? Were the ancestors of the present Red Race the Aborigines? What evidences exist, 
if any, of the occupancy of the country by man prior to the arrival of the Indian race ? 

272. Proofs from Geology. — Are there any evidences of the country’s having been occupied by man 
prior to the deposition of the tertiary, or the diluvial strata ? Are such evidences confined wholly to the uncon¬ 
solidated deposits; and, if so, to what deposits, and of what probable eras ? 

273. Proofs from Antique Bones. — How deep, in any beds or deposits, local or general, of the upper 
geological formations, are the bones of extinct or existing kinds of quadrupeds or other animal remains to be 
found ? Have the fortunes of the Red Race, or any prior race, been connected with, or are they illustrated by 
the extinction of the mastodon, or other large animals whose bones are now found in a fossil state ? 

274. Proofs from Astronomy. — • What are the general conclusions to be drawn respecting the era or eras 
of the antique settlement of America, from the knowledge of astronomy, the style of architecture, the system of 
religious belief, and mythology, the state of art, or any other department of historical or antiquarian investiga¬ 
tion connected with the history of the tropical or equinoxial tribes ? 

275. Proofs from Languages. — Do the American languages offer any proofs, in their grammars, or 
vocabularies, of ancient connexions with oriental or other foreign nations ? 

276. Proofs from Topography and Geography. — What probable facts or just conclusions can be 
drawn respecting the ancient point or points of approach to the continent, from topographical and geographical 
considerations ? 

GROUPS OF TRIBES WITHIN THE UNITED STATES. 

277. What Indian Tribes in the United States are clearly derived from the same Stocks? — 
How are remote tribes to be traced, and into what number of generic families, or groups, can they be ultimately 
classed ? 

278. What is the extent of the Algonquin Family? — How many tribes of this class yet exist, 
and how many are known to be extinct ? What relation do the ancient Lenni Lenapes, or Delawares, hold in 
this family ? 

279. Of what Group are the Iroquois, and how is it made up. — Are there other tribes besides 
the Wyandots allied to it? Were the Eries of this group? 

280. Are Tribes speaking Dialects of the Dacota, or Sioux Language, extensive ? —Does 
it embrace many of the prairie tribes of the Missouri? To what extent are they to be traced towards the West 
and South ? 

281. What Facts exist for forming an Appalachian Group? — Has such an arrangement advan¬ 
tages over the more circumscribed term “Floridian?” In what manner are we to proceed in assigning the 
Muscogees and other tribes their appropriate positions in this important group ? Was there an early infusion of 
foreign blood into any branch of this race ? 

282. What connection do the United States Indians hold, Ethnologically, to those of 
Mexico 1 — Are there any proofs of affiliation in the grammars and vocabularies? What lights are afforded by 
history or tradition ? Was the valley of the Mississippi probably settled at the period of the establishment of 
the Aztec empire, under the predecessors of the Montezumas? 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


550 


283. Whence came the Natchez and the Utches? — Are they of the true Appalachian type? Were 
there ever a people called Caribs, inhabiting the part of North America called Florida by the Spaniards? 
What can he said, historically, of the Appalaches, or Appalachians, proper ? 

284. Course of Migration. —Is the ethnological chain of migration to be traced into the Mississippi 
valley, and along the Atlantic coast, from south to north, or vice versd ? Is this chain denoted by any remains 
of art, as well as by language and tradition ? What proofs of such an expansion of tribes are to be sought in 
climate and geographical phenomena? 

285. Appreciation of remote Evidences in Establishing Croups. — Is there any evidence of 
ancient affinities to be found in the arithmetic or astronomy, or in the numerals and mode of computing time of 
the separate tribes ? Are mounds and ancient places of defence supposed to evince a state of art, from which 
any reliable deductions of the affinities of races may he drawn ? 

286. Are Religious Rites auxiliary Aids in the Erection of Groups? — Is the name for the 
Deity, or Great Spirit, necessarily more prominent than any other ? What characters do the sun and the moon 
generally bear, as types ? Are the traces of an ancient fire-worship on this continent extensive and reliable ? 
Is the relative position of the mounds explicable, in some cases, on this theory ? Have analogies, in prophetic 
arts, necromancy, music, picture-writing, and oral fiction, any hearing in denoting similarity of origin ? 

287. Philosophy of Change in Languages. — How, or by what process in syllahical mutation, have 
words changed, so as to assume the character of new dialects and languages, on this continent, while the plan of 
thought, or grammar, has varied less, or been retained ? 

288. Fixity of Races. — Have there been any striking changes in the physical type of the Indian race, 
beyond that produced by latitudes and longitudes, and by their manner of subsistence ? 


TOPICAL INQUIRIES ILLUSTRATIVE OF GENERAL HISTORY. 

289. Remnants of the New England Tribes. —What is the number and condition of the Penob- 
scots ? Are the Abenakis, who fled from Norridgwack, still under the care of their original teachers, and what 
progress have they made in industry and the civil arts, since their withdrawal to Canada ? What vestiges of 
the Massachusetts group of tribes remain within the boundaries of that State, inclusive of Martha’s Vineyard 
and other Islands ? What are the present number and condition of the Narragansetts of Rhode Island, aud of 
the Mohegans of Connecticut ? 

290. Native Tribes of New York. — What is the present number, location, and state of industry of 
the Iroquois? Was their confederacy of ancient or modern date; and what were the principles of their 
government ? Are there any of the stock of the ancient Mohegans, Munsees, or other tribes of the Hudson 
valley, or of Long Island and the adjacent coasts, left within the boundaries of this State ? What is the 
meaning of the word Manhattan ? Did Hudson ever land on this Island ? 

291. What Indians still reside in Northampton County, Virginia? — Are they of the Powhat- 
tanic stock; and are there still to be found, in other parts of that State, descendants of the Nottoways, or other 
Indians belonging to that family ? 

292. What number of the Catawbas of South Carolina remain? — Do the Indians of this tribe, 
who live in York district, own any lands; and, if not, what annuities do they receive from the State; and 
are these annuities applied in such manner as to promote their education and industry ? What affinities exist 
between the Catawba and other existing languages ? 

293. What are the Circumstances under which a part of the Cherokees are living in 
North Carolina? — How many persons remain at the location secured to them, and what progress have they 
made in agriculture and civilization ? 


560 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


291. Do the Seminoles, who remain in Florida, increase in Number?— Have they made any 
advance in agriculture or the arts, and is their continued residence in that State best suited to promote 
their happiness and welfare, and to secure, at the same time, the prosperity of the State settlements ? 

295. Who were the most ancient Tribes inhabiting Florida? — Is there any reason to believe 
that Cuba, the Bahamas, or any of the northernmost groups of the West India Islands, were originally peopled 
by Indians from the peninsula of Florida ? Who were the Appalachites spoken of in Davis’ history of 
the Caribbee Islands ? Did a colony of Minorcans ever land, in ancient times, in Florida? What was the fate 
of the French, who abandoned themselves to the wilderness of Florida, on the failure of Laudonniere’s plan of 
settlement ? Are there any evidences of De Soto’s expedition to be found in existing Indian names ? 

296. What Remains exist oe the Indian Population op the States south op, or bordering 
on, the southern range op the Appalachian Mountains ? — In what manner were these tribes 
originally related; what incidents led them to leave their original sites on the southern and southwestern streams, 
and how are they distributed and located at the present time ? 

297. How FAR ARE THE CLAIMS OF THE NoRTH-MEN, AS THE ORIGINAL DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA, 
entitled to Credence ? — If “Vinland” was discovered in the tenth century, what particular latitudes and 
longitudes of North America are we to understand by this term ? 

298. What is the Character and Purport of the Ancient Inscription found on the 
Dighton Rock, on the borders of Massachusetts and Rhode Island ? — Is this inscription in the 
Runic or any other ancient character, in part, or altogether; or is it sui generis with the devices and 
picture-writing of the North American Indians, referred to by No. 245. 

299. Did the Phoenicians, or any other People from the Mediterranean, furnish any 
Element in the Ancient Indian Population of America ? — Is there any affinity between the 
Iroquois and Greek languages ? 

300. Is there any Asiatic Word or Words now in use by any of the American Tribes? — 
What is the origin of the Aztec word “peon?” What are the elements of their name for the Deity, “teo-tl ?” 

301. Do WE DERIVE THE TERM ALLEGHANY FROM AN ANCIENT PEOPLE CALLED ALLEGHANS ?-Are 

there any other words of their language remaining in our geography? State them, with their etymology. 

302. Who were the Eries? — Have we reason to suppose that we may recognise, under this name, the 
Kahkwas of the Iroquois, or the lost “neuter nation,” of the French writers? 

303. What Tribe are we to understand by the Term “Fire Nation?” — Is this a synonym for 
any of the existing western tribes? Were they of the group of the Algonquin tribes, or of a different stock, 
who were expelled by them ? 

304. Is the Word Oregon an Indian Term? — If so, in what language, and what are its syllabical 
elements and meaning? Was it employed, by writers, prior to the time of Carver? 

305. Is the Inscription found on opening the Grave Creek Mound, in Western Virginia, 
in 1839, Alphabetic or Hieroglyphic? — If alphabetic, in what ancient character was it executed, what 
is the purport thereof, and what bearings has it on the early epoch of American history ? Furnish an authentic 
copy of the inscription, with its interpretation, if known. 

306. Cincinnati Antique Stone. — What objects are depicted on an antique ornamented stone found in 
a mound in the town plat of Cincinnati in 1840 ? Are these ornaments in the Yucatanese style ? 

807. At what Time, after they became acquainted with the Gulf of Mexico, was the Mouth 
of the Mississippi first discovered by the Spanish? —What name did they bestow on it; what 
terms were bestowed by others, and in what manner has the present term of Mississippi come to prevail ? Is 
this an Algonquin phrase, and if so, what are its elements? 


561 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 

_ 308, Were the Eyidences oe Ancient Civilization confined to Tribes located around the 
Uulf of Mexico? -Do the articles and fragments of ancient earthenware, found at Appalachicola Bay and 
at other places, in Florida, denote a degree of skill in that art superior to that known to have been possessed by 
the northern tribes, on the planting of the colonies? ’ J 

309. What Oriental Customs are denoted by Western Antiquities?— Articles of antique pottery 
have been found in Tennessee, which are stated to denote the existence of the Phallic worship amono- the ancient 
tribes who inhabited the precincts of that state. What are the facts on this head; and do they receive counte¬ 
nance from discoveries in other quarters? 

310. Are there any Affinities between the Carib and North American Dialects? 

311. Tribal Element of Ancient Civilization ? —Are the reports we have in Humboldt, which are 
renewed by later writers, of a tribe of White Indians, called Moques or Mocas in the north-western parts of 
Sonora, founded on truth, and what are the features, habits, and arts of this people ? Do this tribe possess blue 
eyes, flaxen hair, and a white skin ? Do they build stone-houses, raise large herds of cattle, and grow and spin 
cotton ? 

312. Tribes of New Mexico. — What are the character, habits, and state of industry of the Navihoes, 
Jicarillas, Utahs, Kayaguas, and other native tribes of this intendency? 

313. Indians of Oregon. —What are the principal facts respecting the numbers, names, and groups, of 
these tribes ? Are there any analogies between the ancient languages of Mexico or California, and the Pacific 
tribes in the vicinity of Nootka Sound ? And are the tribes of the Columbia Valley, as they are represented to 
be, destitute of the knowledge of a God, and otherwise degraded in their intellectual character, below those 
generally located east of the Rocky Mountains ? 

314. Was America known in the Fifth Century, as is now said, in the Bibliothetical 
Circles of Germany, on the Authority of Chinese Writings ? 

LANGUAGE. 

315. What are the Grammatical Principles of the Language? — Do these principles correspond 
with the ancient or modern class of languages ? If with the ancient, with what family, and in what particulars, 
do resemblances or affinities exist ? Are the words simple or compound ? If compound, or compound deriva¬ 
tives are used, what are the rules by which these compounds are effected ? 

316. Is the Vocabulary of the Language founded on Generic Roots or Primary Forms 
which coalesce with Adjuncts, in the Utterance ?— Are these roots numerous? Are they 
monysyllabie or dissyllabic ? Do they express the primary senses of motion, existence, and action, quality, and 
position, without their relation to objects or persons ? 

317. What is the Process of Syllabical Accretion? — Does more than one substantive and one 
verb enter into the new compound ? If two or more words coalesce, do they both retain their quota of syllables, 
or are some dropped, or thrown away ? What are the rules of this process of discarding syllables ? Which 
syllable is invested with the primary meaning ? Give examples of the mode of coalescence. 

318. Have the Verbs and Substantives power to absorb into their Texture, Pronouns, 
Prepositions and Adjectives ? — If so, does not a word become highly concrete, descriptive, and pollysyl- 
labic, exhibiting rather the force and meaning of an entire sentence ? 

319. What Laws of Concord govern the Use of Substantives? —Have they variations of form 
to designate number, gender, and case ? How is the plural formed ? Is there any dual number ? Is there a 
limited and an unlimited plural, or an inclusive and exclusive plural ? Have substantives any inflection to 
denote the animate or inanimate class of objects ? 

71 


562 


APPENDIX — INQUIRIES. 


320. Gender. —Is there a masculine, feminine, and neuter gender? If the sex of objects require no 
concords, to what principle of distinction do the inflections of transitive verbs and nouns point ? Is the arrange¬ 
ment of matter and masses into animate and inanimate kingdoms observed? By what inflections of the 
substantives are these classes denoted ? Do nouns, animate or inanimate, require verbs animate or inanimate, 
and vice versa ? 

321. What are the Principal Changes op Form op Substantives? — Are they declined to form 
cases ? Are they susceptible of local and of adjective inflections ? Does the noun precede, or follow the verb ? 
Do they say ‘ give me food/ or ‘ food give me ?’ Are substantives converted into verbs, and how ? 

322. What are the Laws of Accidence of Verbs? — Do verbs consist of ground forms, which 
indicate independent or generic action, passion, or existence ? How are these forms varied to denote person and 
object? IIow, in the incorporation of pronominal elements, is the actor distinguished from the object? How 
many moods, tenses, and voices have they? Can they be conjugated positively and negatively? Is there any 
true infinitive in the spoken dialect, or how is the infinitive denoted ? Are there participles ? Are verbs formed 
from nouns? How are the verbs to speak, to dance, to cry, converted into speaker, dancer, cryer? Conjugate 
the verbs to love, to see, to burn, through the various moods and tenses. 

323. Do Adjectives, as well as Verbs and Substantives, obey the Grammatical Distinc¬ 
tion of Animate and Inanimate ? — Are the words good and bad, black and white, varied in their termi¬ 
nations to denote the generic classes of objects to which they are applied ? Cannot the same adjective term be 
applied to a man and a rock? Are adjectives declined for comparison? How do they denote the degrees 
of comparison ? If adjectives are not varied for degrees, how is precision imparted ? Do substantives admit of 
adjective inflections, by which the use of a governing adjective is obviated? In the terms a.good man and a 
good gun, need the words man and gun be separately employed ? Describe the rule, with its transitions and 
variations. 

324. How many Pronouns has the Language ? — Are there personal, relative, and demonstrative 
pronouns, and how many of each, and in what manner are they varied in the plural ? Is there any pronoun 
she, as contradistinguished from he? Is the number of the third person always indefinite? Are there two 
plurals for we, founded on the principle of the inclusion or exclusion of the person addressed ? How is 
the Deity addressed under the operation of this anomalous rule ? 

325. Are Pronouns susceptible of Inflections for Tense, Number, or Transitive Object? — 
In what manner are they varied, and how is the past and future distinguished from the present ? Can they be 
further varied to denote the oblique tenses ? Is there more than one class of personal pronouns; and if so, how 
do the personal prefixed pronouns differ from the suffixes? 

326. Has the Language Prepositions? — If so, are they employed disjunctively, or as independent 
parts of speech, as heard in by, to, in, with, if, from, through, or are these senses expressed by inseparable 
particles, or by alphabetical signs ? How is precision given to the phrases, in the water, by the rock, on the 
tree ? 

327. What is the Number and Character of their Adverbs? — Can the Indians express the 
sense which, in the English language, is conveyed by the inflection ly, as heard in badly, rapidly ? In the 
phrases, stand up, lie down, go there, how do the verbs differ from their ordinary forms in the singular of the 
indicative or imperative present ? What are the forms of yes and no ? 

328. Is there a Definite and an Indefinite Article ? — How is the want of a definite article 
supplied ? It will be necessary, in examining the subject of the definite article, in the Indian dialects, to guard, 
on the part of interpreters, against the use of pronouns, in this supposed sense. It is also important to decide 
whether the indefinite article, where it is given, does not strictly denote the number one, and not an ,• and to be 
sure that the sense of the expression employed is not an animal, &c., but one animal, &c. 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


563 


329. Conjunctions. — How many conjunctions have the Indians? Give the common equivalents for the 
words, and, nor, neither, but, &c., together with the manner in which their equivalents in the Indian dialect, 
under your examination, are employed. Are there chronological conjunctions? 

330. Interjections. — Does the language abound in exclamations, and does this part of speech partake of 
the anomalous transitive character which marks the other forms? If an Indian exclaim lo! in relation to a 
man, and lo! in relation to a country, are the equivalents for the word lo! the same? Are there any differences 
in the interjections used by males and by females ? Is the word for alas! the same in both cases ? 

331. Is there a Substantive Verb in the Language? —And, if so, what are its elements? Can 
the Indians say, I am, he is, they are, &c., in a generic or elementary sense, and as declarative of independent 
existence ? If the word exist, as the radix Iau is stated to, in the Odjibwa dialect of the Algonquin, does the 
rule separating the grammatical forms of the language into animate and inanimate classes apply to it ? Is the 
word Iau, in the dialect referred to, a verb substantive animate, and lee, a corresponding verb substantive 
inanimate? Are there analogous forms in the language known to you, and how are these words conjugated? 
Are the conjugations based on one root, or, as in the Latin sum, on several ? If an equivalent for the English 
verb to be exist, is it generally employed in the expression of sentiment or passion in conversation, or is its use 
limited to an object or objects not present to the senses, or which are deemed mysterious or unknown ? Does an 
Indian say, I am sick, I am well, I am glad, I am sorry, or are the several expressions, in these cases, without 
any declarative syllable, as a prefix or suffix to, or incorporated into the texture of the verbs to be sick, or well, 
or glad, or sorry, by the absence of which declarative forms, the terms would be, literally, I sick, I well, I glad, 
I sorry? 

332. How are Active Distinguished from Passive Verbs? — I carry, I am carried. I lift, I am 
lifted. I strike; I am struck. I burn; I am burned. Vary the persons which alternately affect actors and 
objects of action, so as to exemplify the rule. 

333. Derivative Compound Verbs.' —Are active verbs made up, in part, of the generic word in the 
language for existence, or for the property of independent vitality? Is there a corresponding generic root in 
neuter or passive verbs? 

334. Ground Forms of the Substantives. —'Are the nouns based on a stock of generic particles, 
implying various grades of matter, in inert or active forms ? If so, what are the terms, respectively, of liquid, 
solid, light, heavy, aerial, or metallic, animal, vegetable, or mineral matter? In analyzing the language, 
endeavor to eliminate these radical words or particles from their concrete forms. Nothing can tend more 
conclusively to throw light on t-he structure of the language, than this process of syllabical analysis, and it is 
desirable that you should apply it also to the verbs and to other forms of speech. The Indian languages differ 
so essentially from those best known to us, that we should constantly suspect them to be reproductions of old 
languages, in which the original radices are hid under a set of combined grammatical forms, which are, after all, 
very simple. 

335. Are there any Redundancies of Forms ? — Such redundancies have been found in the tensal 
inflections of pronouns wherein the verbs are supplied with the very same inflections, as if we should say, 
/ djd — l ove did ; or, / will — hate will. It is found in some of the languages, that both substantives and 
pronouns and verbs must, in order to agree, have the same plural inflections for number, by which a species 
of verbiage or tensal tautology occurs, as if we should use expressions such as these : the birds they approach 
do ; or, he or they did go—did; instead of simply, the birds approach or he or they went. It is also found that 
possessive pronouns require possessive inflections in their nouns in regimen, and the expressions are, literally, in 
these cases, my horse—mine; his dog—his ; and not, as in English, my horse, his dog. These forms hav e the 
cast rather of an ill-digested and crude language, and not one which, according to the general and most approved 
impressions, exists in a very perfect state. Please extend this inquiry to all apparent redundancies of form. 

336. How is Declarative or Passive Existence Predicated of another in the use of a 
I Noun, changed to a Verb, whose Action is Transferred to one’s self ? — In what manner is the 

substantive invested with the power of a verb ? There is a bear; I am a bear. A horse; I am a horse. God 
exists; I am a God. 


564 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


337. How are Substance and Motion, Quality and Position, denoted in concrete Words, 

WITHOUT THE SEPARATE USE OP THE ELEMENTS OP SPEECH ESSENTIAL TO SUCH EXPRESSIONS IN THE 
English Language ? — A leaf moves, a bird flies, a canoe glides; a dry leaf moves, a blackbird flies, a white 
canoe glidesj a small dry leaf moves, a great blackbird flies, a beautiful white canoe glides; a small dry 
leaf moves on the tree, a great blackbird flies in the air, a beautiful white canoe glides down the stream. How 
far can this process of combination and accretion be carried ? May other senses besides these, be added to the 
original noun, by inflection, or the transfusion of syllables or alphabetical signs ? 

338. What Forms can Substantives or Verbs take to denote Possession, or the Object 
possessed ? — Is there a possessive inflection in the first and second persons ? How is this affected, if affected 
at all, by an objective particle or inflection in the third person ? 

339. Agreement in Number. —- In English Grammar, nouns singular govern verbs plural. A man 
walks, men walk; a robber shoots, the robbers shoot. Is the rule similar in the Indian, or is it directly the 
reverse ? Do they say, a man walk, men walks ? thus requiring, in all cases, singular to singular, and plural to 
plural ? 

340. How many Moods are Provided for by Inflections of the Verbs ? — In what manner 
are the indicative and infinitive formed? Is there, in the verbal forms, any of greater simplicity than 
the third person singular ? Is there an interrogative mood ? 

341. Are there Inflections for Past Tense, added to Deceased Persons’ names to indi¬ 
cate their Death ? — State the rule which is said to govern this delicate practice of allusion to the 
dead, in some of the dialects. 

342. Are there any Words of a Sexual Character, or which are Exclusively Used by 
Males and Females? —The Carib language denoted anomalies of this kind, and there are traces of the 
principle in some of the northern languages. 

343. Is the Language Adapted to the Purposes of Christianity? — Have translations of 
the Scriptures been made in it, and if so, what portions of the Old or New Testament have been 
translated and printed; and what degree of precision, force and exactitude has been attained ? Is the language 
as well adapted to the disquisitive and argumentative style of the Epistles, as to the Gospels, and narrative 
portions ? Has the language been well and characteristically brought out in these translations, or has the literal 
verse by verse system, seeking equivalents for verbal terms which are shielded under the concrete forms, loaded 
the pages of the translations, as has been noticed in some instances, with unnecessary verbiage and redundancies ? 
Is there a word in the language for “virgin,” as contradistinguished from “maid,” and “young woman”—a 
point upon which its capacity to narrate accurately the incarnation turns ? Inquiries of this character will tend 
to illustrate and explain the principles of the language, and are important in judging of the literary value 
of what has already been effected, on the frontiers, in this way. 


344. Is the Language adapted, to any extent, and, if so, to what extent, to the purposes 

of History, Poetry and General Literature ? — What is the relative space occupied by parallel passages 
of Indian and English? Take, for this purpose the parable of Nathan, and the Lord’s prayer. If the principles 
of the amalgamation of words tend to the concentration of sounds, it is reasonable to anticipate that brevity in 
the annotation, or written characters, should follow. If it does not, in what other manner is the language adapted 
to the purposes of literature ? ~ 

345. Is the Vocabulary Copious ? — Can it readily express, or furnish equivalents for, foreign words ? 
Aie there any sounds in the English alphabet which it cannot express? Is gesticulation essential to carry out 
some of its meanings ? Does it appear to be homogenous in its origin, or does it exhibit a mixture of other and 
dissimilar stocks, domestic or foreign ? 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


565 


346. Is THE Radix of the Noun and Verb generally a Monysyllable ?— Can you furnish a 
vocabulary of one hundred specimens of the radical forms of verbs, nouns, or other primary parts of speech ? It 
is suspected, from their capacity of concrete expression, that the North American languages are founded on a 
limited number of elementary roots, of a general or abstract character, which derive precision, not from radical 
changes of sound, but from relative position, permutation, elision, or expansion. The ear, and the ear alone, is 
manifestly the principal guide. The art, which a child early learns by practice, and which appears to require 
but little power, inductive analysis, it is conceived, may reach and explain. 


347. What is the State of their Vocabulary? — Place the Indian opposite the English words in 
the following vocabulary. It is essential to the purposes of comparison that plurals and pronouns should be 
omitted, or carefully noted, wherever they are employed. 


1. God. 

2. Devil. 

3. Angel. 

4. Man. 

5. Woman. 

6. Boy. 

7. Girl, or maid. 

8. Virgin. 

9. Infant, or child. 

10. Father, my. 

11. Mother, “ 

12. Husband, u 

13. Wife, « 

14. Son, “ 

15. Daughter, “ 

16. Brother, “ 

17. Sister, “ 

18. An Indian. 

19. A white man. 

20. Head. 

21. Hair. 

22. Face. 

23. Scalp. 

24. Ear. 

25. Eye. 

26. Nose. 

27. Mouth. 

28. Tongue. 

29. Tooth. 

30. Beard. 

31. Neck. 

32. Arm. 

33. Shoulder. 

34. Back. 

35. Hand. 

36. Finger. 

37. Nail. 

38. Breast. 

39. Body. 

40. Leg 

41. Navel. 


42. Thigh. 

43. Knee. 

44. Foot. 

45. Toe. 

46. Heel. 

47. Bone. 

48. Heart. 

49. Liver. 

50. Windpipe. 

51. Stomach. 

52. Bladder. 

53. Blood. 

54. Vein. 

55. Sinew. 

56. Flesh. 

57. Skin. 

58. Seat. 

59. Ankle. 

60. Town. 

61. House. 

62. Door. 

63. Lodge. 

64. Chief. 

65. Warrior. 

66. Friend. 

67. Enemy. 

68. Kettle. 

69. Arrow. 

70. Bow. 

71. War-club. 

72. Spear. 

73. Axe. 

74. Gun. 

75. Knife. 

76. Flint. 

77. Boat. 

78. Ship. 

79. Sail. 

80. Mast. 

81. Oar. 

82. Paddle. 


83. Shoe. 

84. Legging. 

85. Coat. 

86. Shirt. 

87. Breechcloth. 

88. Sash. 

89. Head-dress. 

90. Pipe. 

91. Wampum. 

92. Tobacco. 

93. Shot pouch, 

94. Sky. 

95. Heaven. 

96. Sun. 

97. Moon. 

98. Star. 

99. Day. 

100 Night. 

101. Light. 

102. Darkness. 

103. Morning. 

104. Evening. 

105. Mid-day. 

106. Mid-night. 

107. Early. 

108. Late. 

109. Spring. 

110. Summer. 

111. Autumn. 

112. Winter. 

113. Year. 

114. Wind. 

115. Lightning. 

116. Thunder. 

117. Rain. 

118. Snow. 

119. Hail. 

120. Fire. 

121. Water. 

122. Ice. 

123. Earth. 


566 

APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 

124. Sea. 

174. Flower. 

224. Partridge. 

125. Lake. 

175. Rose. 

225. Pigeon. 

126. River. 

176. Lily. 

226. Plover. 

127. Spring. 

177. Bread. 

227. Woodcock. 

128. Stream. 

178. Indian meal. 

228. Turkey. 

129. Valley. 

179. Flour. 

229. Crow. 

130. Hill. 

180. Meat. 

230. Raven. 

131. Mountain. 

181. Fat. 

231. Robin. 

132. Plain. 

182. Beaver. 

232. Eagle. 

133. Forest. 

183. Deer. 

233. Hawk. 

134. Meadow. 

184. Bison, or buffalo. 

234. Snipe. 

135. Bog. 

185. Bear. 

235. Owl. 

136. Island. 

186. Elk. 

236. Woodpecker. 

137. Stone. 

187. Moose. 

237. Fish. 

138. Rock. 

188. Otter. 

238. Trout. 

139. Silver. 

189. Fox. 

239. Bass. 

140. Copper. 

190. Wolf. 

240. Sturgeon. 

141. Iron. 

191. Dog. 

241. Sunfish. 

142. Lead. 

192. Squirrel. 

242. Pike. 

143. Gold. 

193. Hare. 

243. Catfish. 

144. Maize, or corn. 

194. Lynx. 

244. Perch. 

145. Wheat. 

195. Panther. 

245. Sucker. 

146. Oats. 

196. Muskrat. 

246. Minnow. 

147. Potatoes 

197. Mink. 

247. Fin. 

148. Turnip. 

198. Fisher. 

248. Scale. 

149. Pea. 

199. Marten. 

249. Roe. 

150. Rye. 

200. Mole. 

250. White.* 

151. Bean. 

201. Polecat. 

251. Black. 

152. Melon. 

202. Hog. 

252. Red. 

153. Squash. 

203. Horse. 

253. Green. 

154. Barley. 

204. Cow. 

254. Blue. 

155. Tree. 

. 205. Sheep. 

255. Yellow. 

156. Log. 

206. Turtle, or tortoise. 

256. Great. 

157. Limb. 

207. Toad. 

257. Small. 

158. Wood. 

208. Snake. 

258. Strong. 

159. Post. 

209. Lizard. 

259. Weak. 

160. Stump. 

210. Worm. 

260. Old. 

161. Pine. 

211. Insect. 

261. Young. 

162. Oak. 

212. Fly. 

262. Good. 

163. Ash. 

213. Wasp. 

263. Bad. 

164. Elm. 

214. Ant. 

264. Handsome. 

165. Basswood. 

215. Bird. 

265. Ugly. 

166. Shrub. 

216. Egg. 

266. Alive. 

167. Leaf. 

217. Feather. 

267. Dead. 

168. Bark. 

218. Claw. 

268. Life. 

169. Grass. 

219. Beak. 

269. Death. 

170. Hay. 

220. Wing. 

270. Cold. 

171. Nettle. 

221. Goose. 

271. Hot. 

172. Thistle. 

222. Duck. 

272. Sour. 

173. Weed. 

223. Swan. 

273. Sweet. 


* Den0te Whether the ad jective be animate or inanimate; put an, for the first, and in, for the second. 









APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


567 


274. 

Pepper. 

295. Far off. 

323. To cry. 

275. 

Salt. 

296. To-day. 

324. To love. 

276. 

Bitter. 

297. To-morrow 

325. To burn. 

277. 

I. 

298. Yesterday. 

326. To walk. 

278. 

Thou. 

299. By and by. 

327. To run. 

279. 

He. 

300. Yes. 

328. To see. 

280. 

She. 

301. No. 

329. To hear. 

281. 

They. 

302. Perhaps. 

330. To speak. 

282. 

Ye. 

303. Never. 

331. To strike. 

283. 

We, (inclusive.) 

304. Forever. 

332. To think. 

284. 

We, (exclusive.) 

305. Above. 

333. To wish. 

285. j 

'This, (animate.) 

306. Under. 

334. To call. 

.This, (inanimate.) 

307. Within. 

335. To live. 

286. j 

That, (animate.) 

308. Without. 

336. To go. 

[That, (inanimate.) 

309. Something. 

337. To sing. 

287. \ 

[These, (animate.) 

310. Nothing. 

338. To dance. 

[These, (inanimate.) 

311. On. 

339. To die. 

288. -I 

[Those, (animate.) 

312. In. 

840. To tie. 

[Those, (inanimate.) 

313. By. 

341. To kill. 

289. 

All. 

314. Through. 

342. To embark. 

290. 

Part. 

315. In the sky. 

343. Eating. 

291. 

1 

Who. 
j What. 

316. On the tree. 

317. In the house. 

344. Drinking. 

345. Laughing. 

292. | 

293. j 

What person. 

[What thing. 

[Which person. 

318. By the shore. 

819. Through the water. 

320. To eat. * 

346. Crying. 

347. To be, or exist. 

348. You are. 

[Which thing. 

321. To drink. 

349. He is. 

294. 

Near. 

322. To laugh. 

350. I am that I am. 


848. Are you Acquainted with any Material Errors in the General or Popular Accounts 
op our Indian Tribes ? — If so, please state them. 

In submitting the preceding queries on the several subjects named, it is not designed to limit the inquiry to 
these particular forms. Called upon, by the terms of the act, to embody materials illustrative of the history of 
the tribes, as well as their statistics, the Department seeks to avail itself of the knowledge and experience of 
persons in various parts of the country, to contribute their aid. The inquiry is here placed on a broad basis, 
that it may embrace the general grounds from which we are to judge the history and condition, past and present, 
of the people whose benefit is sought by future legislative provision; and by the adoption of a course of public 
policy which shall best subserve the highest interests. It is not supposed that every person who sits down to 
answer these queries, whether he be in a public or private capacity, will take an equal interest m them,, or feel 
equally prepared, with facts and observations, to reply to all. By denoting the general line of inquiry, 
and running out the leading questions a little into detail, enough has been done, it is conceived, to serve as hints 
to the respondents, and little more is, indeed, intended. Facts are sought, and nothing but facts. It is essential 
that, where the respondent is unknown to the Department, some reference should be given. Many of the 
inquiries relate to customs and opinions which are believed to be common to most of the tribes; but the excepted 
cases are important to be noted, and in these cases simple affirmative or negative replies will often be sufficient. 
Where new facts are stated, or new opinions expressed, which are founded on personal knowledge or study, in 
any branch of the subject, it is of moment that they should be well vouched. Hitherto inquiries of this kind 
have been chiefly in the hands of casual visitors or travellers in the Indian country, often of foreigners, 
who have necessarily taken hasty and superficial glances at their mere external customs and ceremonies. Of the 
more abstruse view of Indian character —of their religion, tribal government and clanships, their thoughts on 


* If there be no infinitive to verbs, insert the simplest concrete form here, as, he eats, he drinks, &c. 







568 


APPENDIX —INQUIRIES. 


death and immortality, their mental capacities, and the leading causes of their action, very little has been 
observed, which possesses the character of research, while there are essential points of discrepancy. But 
whatever degree of imperfection has characterized these desultory and casual efforts in describing the Indians, 
and however much cause we may have had to dissent from some of the conclusions and criticisms respecting our 
treatment of, and policy towards them, drawn by tourists from abroad, or by over-zealous but mistakeu 
observers at home, it is essential to the just discharge of the duty imposed on the Department, in the present 
effort, that exactitude should stamp its labors. I will therefore thank you to inquire carefully, and be sure that 
no deception has been practised. In all questions where the interests of the tribes clash with those of the 
persons whom you may consult, there is much caution required. There is great prejudice of opinion, and 
preconception of the Indian character, generally. It is due to them that they should be judged candidly, and 
from an examination of opinions and statements from the best sources. A few examples of the misconceptions 
referred to, will be mentioned. It was stated a few years ago, by one of the most popular writers of England, 
that the United States had borrowed money, in 1837, from a wealthy Indian chief, to pay its annuities to his tribe ! 
and its policy has been deeply censured, in high quarters, in the foreign literary world, on the bases of books of 
travels, whose least severe censure it is believed to be, to declare, that their authors have relied, in some 
instances, on hastily gathered, or ill-digested, or unworthy materials. One writer represents the Mandans 
as practising the arts of self-torture of Hindoo devotees, by hanging from hooks, or cords fastened into the 
nerves, so as to sustain the whole weight of the body. This, together with the general account of the Mandan 
religion, by the same author, is contrary to the facts, as understood here. The same writer will also have this 
tribe to be descendants of the Welch, who are supposed to have reached this continent in the twelfth century. 
Yet the British Druids imposed no such self-torturing rites. 

Much inexactitude and uncertainty exist with respect to the class of evidences to be drawn from the antiqui¬ 
ties of. the area of country now composing the United States. To illustrate this topic, in the Indian history, 
exact plans and descriptions are required. The state of their traditions is ill-explored, on most of the topics 
embraced in title Y. Their general history and languages, constitute a wide field for remark. The whole 
subject is one of interest, and in giving the inquiry official sanction, it is designed to collect and prepare a body 
of facts, which shall present the customs, character, and institutions of the tribes in the simple garb of truth. 


THE END. 


STEREOTYPED BY J. FAGAH. 


PRINTED BY T. K. AND P. e. COLLINS. 




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